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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 1,441 records · Page 80
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

A lightweight method for evaluating in situ workflow efficiency

Performance evaluation is crucial to understanding the behavior of scientific workflows. In this study, we target an emerging type of workflow, called in situ workflows. These workflows tightly couple components such as simulation and analysis to improve overall workflow performance. To understand the tradeoffs of various configurable parameters for coupling these heterogeneous tasks, namely simulation stride, and component placement, separately monitoring each component is insufficient to gain insights into the entire workflow behavior. Through an analysis of the state-of-the-art research, we propose a lightweight metric, derived from a defined in situ step, for assessing resource usage efficiency of an in situ workflow execution. By applying this metric to a synthetic workflow, which is parameterized to emulate behaviors of a molecular dynamics simulation, we explore two possible scenarios (Idle Simulation and Idle Analyzer) for the characterization of in situ workflow execution. In addition to preliminary results from a recently published study [11], we further exploit the proposed metric to evaluate a practical in situ workflow with a real molecular dynamics application, i.e., GROMACS. Here, experimental results show that the in transit placement (analytics on dedicated nodes) sustains a higher frequency for performing in situ analysis compared to the helper-core configuration (analytics co-allocated with simulation).

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Phase-stabilized 2D/3D hetero-bilayers via lattice matching for efficient and stable inverted solar cells

2D-on-3D (2D/3D) perovskite heterostructures with engineered energy landscapes offer the potential to realize efficient and stable inverted solar cells. However, managing the energy landscape using 2D perovskites with thicker inorganic layers n > 1 necessitates the usage of the chemically unstable methylammonium MA + . Here, we synthesized formamidinium (FA)-rich and pure-FA n = 3 Ruddlesden-Popper (RPP) and Dion-Jacobson perovskite (DJP) single crystals by identifying ligands with suitably lattice-matched organic and inorganic components of the 2D lattice. These crystals were translated onto 3D perovskites as capping layers, forming 2D/3D hetero-bilayers (HBs). Degradation studies revealed that HBs with butylammonium-based RPPs as capping layers rapidly phase segregate into non-perovskites under combined extrinsic stressors, compromising the underlying 3D layer, whereas FA-rich DJPs based on 3-aminomethylpiperidine retain their phase stability. The DJP HBs also possess a favorable energy landscape and electron transport at the 2D/3D interface, enabling inverted solar cells with a champion PCE of 25.33% and remarkable stability.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Diagnostic-free onboard battery health assessment

Diverse usage patterns induce complex and variable aging behaviors in lithiumion batteries, complicating accurate health diagnosis and prognosis. Separate diagnostic cycles are often used to untangle the battery’s current state of health from prior complex aging patterns. However, these same diagnostic cycles alter the battery’s degradation trajectory, are time-intensive, and cannot be practically performed in onboard applications. Here, in this work, we leverage portions of operational measurements in combination with an interpretable machine learning model to enable rapid, onboard battery health diagnostics and prognostics without offline diagnostic testing and the requirement of historical data. We integrate mechanistic constraints within an encoder-decoder architecture to extract electrode states in a physically interpretable latent space and enable improved reconstruction of the degradation path. The health diagnosis model framework can be flexibly applied across diverse application interests with slight fine-tuning.

battery aging reconstruction↗
DOE OSTI2025

Roadmap to 100 GWDC: Scientific and supply chain challenges for CdTe photovoltaics

This roadmap highlights pathways to expand the CdTe module manufacturing capacity per year to 100 GW DC by 2030 by improving Te extraction from existing supply chains, minimizing Te usage in modules by leveraging thinner absorbers, and focusing research efforts in key areas to improve module efficiencies. Both scientific and supply chain innovations will be necessary to maintain the high compound annual growth rate of the CdTe photovoltaic (PV) industry and cement its role as a key technology for multi-TW-scale PV deployment.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2018

Coping with silent and fail-stop errors at scale by combining replication and checkpointing

This paper provides a model and an analytical study of replication as a technique to cope with silent errors, as well as a mixture of both silent and fail-stop errors on large-scale platforms. Compared with fail-stop errors that are immediately detected when they occur, silent errors require a detection mechanism. To detect silent errors, many application-specific techniques are available, either based on algorithms (e.g., ABFT), invariant preservation or data analytics, but replication remains the most transparent and least intrusive technique. We explore the right level (duplication, triplication or more) of replication for two frameworks: (i) when the platform is subject to only silent errors, and (ii) when the platform is subject to both silent and fail-stop errors. A higher level of replication is more expensive in terms of resource usage but enables to tolerate more errors and to even correct some errors, hence there is a trade-off to be found. Replication is combined with checkpointing and comes with two flavors: process replication and group replication. Process replication applies to message-passing applications with communicating processes. Each process is replicated, and the platform is composed of process pairs, or triplets. Group replication applies to black-box applications, whose parallel execution is replicated several times. The platform is partitioned into two halves (or three thirds). In both scenarios, results are compared before each checkpoint, which is taken only when both results (duplication) or two out of three results (triplication) coincide. Otherwise, one or more silent errors have been detected, and the application rolls back to the last checkpoint, as well as when fail-stop errors have struck. We provide a detailed analytical study for all of these scenarios, with formulas to decide, for each scenario, the optimal parameters as a function of the error rate, checkpoint cost, and platform size. We also report a set of extensive simulation results that nicely corroborates the analytical model.

Checkpointing↗
DOE OSTI2023

NIRDye 812: A molecular platform tailored for multimodal bioimaging applications of targeted fluorescence- and photoacoustic-guided surgery

The primary treatment for malignant tumors remains to be surgical removal of the diseased tissue. The presence or absence of residual diseased tissue at the tumor margin is the strongest predictor of postoperative prognosis and recurrence. Accordingly, reliance on the ability of surgeons to visually distinguish diseased tissue from healthy tissue unambiguously in real time is crucial. Near infrared-I (NIRsingle bondI) fluorescence-emitting targeting biomolecular constructs such as anticancer antibody-fluorophore conjugates, namely cetuximab-IRDye® 800CW (CTB-IRDye® 800CW), are FDA-approved for clinical trial usage in the fluorescence-guided resection of diseased tissue due to affording improved direct visualization of tumor tissue when compared to the use of either the unaided eye under standard white light illumination (WLI) surgical techniques or non-targeting fluorophores. Unfortunately, though helpful, CTB-IRDye® 800CW affords limited (i) identification of diseased tissue and (ii) tumor margin delineation, because the immunoconjugate generates suboptimal tumor-to-background ratios (TBRs) as a result of its spectral/photophysical profiles poorly aligning with the fixed optical windows of pre-/clinical setups. As such, CTB-IRDye® 800CW is more prone to affording incomplete resection compared to if TBRs were higher due to otherwise. Here, to aid in accurately identifying deep-seated diseased tissue, photoacoustic (PA) tomography has been implemented alongside CTB-IRDye® 800CW to achieve PA signals that could result in higher TBRs. However, in clinical trial practice, using IRDye® 800CW for PA imaging also yields subpar TBRs due to it affording low PA signals. To overcome such limitations, we developed NIRDye 812, a structurally-modified topological equivalent of IRDye® 800CW, to confer it the capability to yield both higher TBRs and superior PA signal than that of the equivalent CTB-conjugate and fluorophore IRDye® 800CW itself, respectively. To do so, we substituted the oxygen atom at its meso-position with a sulfur atom. CTB-NIRDye 812 demonstrated a red-shifted absorption wavelength at 796 nm and a peak NIR-I fluorescence emission wavelength at 820 nm, which better dovetails with the fixed windows of preinstalled fixed emission filters within commercial pre-/clinical NIR-I fluorescence imaging instruments. Overall, CTB-NIRDye 812 provided a ~ 2-fold increase in TBRs compared to those of CTB-IRDye® 800CW in vivo. Also, NIRDye 812 displayed an ~60% higher PA signal than that of IRDye® 800CW. Collectively, we achieved our goal of improving upon the spectral/photophysical and PA properties of IRDye® 800CW via introducing a subtle modification to its electronic core such that its CTB immunoconjugate could potentially allow for fast track or breakthrough designation by the FDA due to its near-identical structure displaying considerably improved efficacy.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2011

Investigation of Path Dependence in Commercial Li-ion Cells Chosen for PHEV Duty Cycle Protocols (paper)

Path dependence is emerging as a premier issue of how electrochemical cells age in conditions that are diverse and variable in the time domain. For example, lithium-ion cells in a vehicle configuration will experience a variable combination of usage and rest periods over a range of temperature and state of charge (SOC). This is complicated by the fact that some aging can actually become worse (or better) when a lithium-ion cell is idle for extended periods under calendar-life (calL) aging, as opposed to cycle-life (cycL) conditions where the cell is used within a predictable schedule. The purpose of this study is to bridge the gap between highly idealized and controlled laboratory test conditions and actual field conditions regarding PHEV applications, so that field-type aging mechanisms can be mimicked and quantified in a repeatable laboratory setting. The main parameters are the magnitude and frequency of the thermal cycling, looking at isothermal, mild, and severe scenarios. To date, little is known about Li-ion aging effects caused by thermal cycling superimposed onto electrochemical cycling, and related path dependence. This scenario is representative of what Li-ion batteries will experience in vehicle service, where upon the typical start of a HEV/PHEV, the batteries will be cool or cold, will gradually warm up to normal temperature and operate there for a time, then will cool down after the vehicle is turned off. Such thermal cycling will occur thousands of times during the projected life of a HEV/PHEV battery pack. We propose to quantify the effects of thermal cycling on Li-ion batteries using a representative chemistry that is commercially available. The secondary Li-ion cells used in this study are of the 18650 configuration, have a nominal capacity rating of 1.9 Ah, and consist of a {LiMn2O4 + LiMn(1/3)Ni(1/3)Co(1/3)O2} cathode and a graphite anode. Electrochemical cycling is based on PHEV-relevant cycle-life protocols that are a combination of charge depleting (CD) and charge sustaining (CS) modes discussed in the Battery Test Manual for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (INL, March 2008, rev0). A realistic duty cycle will involve both CD and CS modes, the proportion of each defined by the severity of the power demands. We assume that the cells will start each cycling day at 90% SOC, and that they will not be allowed to go below 35% SOC, with operation around 70% SOC being a nominal condition. The 35, 70, and 90% SOC conditions are also being used to define critical aspects of the related reference performance test (RPT) for this investigation. There are three primary components to the RPT, all assessed at room temperature: (A) static and residual capacity (SRC) over a matrix of current, (B) kinetics and pulse performance testing (PPT) over current for SOCs of interest, and (C) EIS for SOCs of interest. The RPT is performed on all cells every 30 day test interval, as well as a pulse-per-day to provide a quick diagnostic snapshot. Where feasible, we utilize various elements of Diagnostic Testing (DT) to characterize performance of the cells and to gain mechanistic-level knowledge regarding both performance features and limitations. We will present the rationale behind the experimental design, early data, and discuss the fundamental tools used to elucidate performance degradation mechanisms.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2012

A Mechanistic-Based Healing Model for Self-Healing Glass Seals Used in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

The usage of self-healing glass as hermetic seals is a recent advancement in sealing technology development for the planar solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Because of its capability of restoring the mechanical properties at elevated temperatures, the self-healing glass seal is expected to provide high reliability in maintaining the long-term structural integrity and functionality of SOFCs. In order to accommodate the design and to evaluate the effectiveness of such engineering seals under various thermo-mechanical operating conditions, computational modeling framework needs to be developed to accurately capture and predict the healing behavior of the glass material. In the present work, a mechanistic-based two-stage model was developed to study the stress and temperature-dependent crack healing of the self-healing glass materials. The model was first calibrated by experimental measurements combined with the kinetic Monte Carlo (kMC) simulation results and then implemented into the finite element analysis (FEA). The effects of various factors, i.e. stress, temperature, crack morphology, on the healing behavior of the glass were investigated and discussed.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Enhancing the performance of lithium oxygen batteries through combining redox mediating salts with a lithium protecting salt

Li–O 2 batteries have recently emerged to meet nowadays elevated electric energy demands. Redox mediators (RMs) for solution-inducing decomposition of discharge products are one approach to increase energy efficiency and reduce high overpotentials in these batteries. However, multiple obstacles hinder their usage such as redox shuttling, capacity fading, electrolyte degradation, etc. Herein, we present a new chemistry based on a combination of LiNO 3 , TEGDME and an ionic liquid that enables LiI (1 M) to lower the charge potential (3.5V) with a long cycle life of 270 cycles. 0.1 M LiI increases the cyclability up to 500 with a slightly increased charge potential (~4V) for a fixed capacity of 1000 mAh/g. Up to 100 cycles, this battery system retained ~95% Li 2 O 2 capacity with a ~0.8 V charge-discharge polarization gap. The addition of LiNO 3 to the electrolyte provides a protective solid electrolyte interface (SEI) on anode that works in synergy with the LiI RM. Moreover, we found that this electrolyte blend results in domain formation of ionic and neutral species enhancing the discharge and charge processes. Finally, DFT calculations provide a better understanding of the role of the anode SEI layer and the Li 2 O 2 decomposition promoted by the LiI during charge on the cathode.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Estimate long-term impact on battery degradation by considering electric vehicle real-world end-use factors

Many estimates of battery capacity degradation are based on accelerated lab tests that involve charge-discharge cycles or rely on data or electrochemical modeling. These methods are reasonable for technology benchmarking but rarely consider real-world end-use factors. To address this issue, this study develops the Battery Run-down under Electric Vehicle Operation (BREVO) model. It links the driver's travel pattern to physics-based battery degradation and powertrain energy consumption models. The model simulates the impacts of charging behavior, charging rate, driving patterns, and multiple energy management modules on battery capacity degradation. It finds that, over a 10-year timespan, firstly, for a random driver situated in the New England area, daily direct-current fast charging (60 kW) could lead to up to 22% less battery capacity when compared to daily Level-1 charging (1.8 kW). Second, the battery thermal management system can delay battery degradation by approximately 0.5% in the New England area. Third, warmer ambient temperatures enhance BEV battery usage. The model indicates that the battery capacity in the Los Angeles area is 6% higher than that in the New England area. The BREVO model provides crucial information for consumers and BEV manufacturers on range anxiety, BEV battery design, and decision support of battery warranty.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Computational modeling of coupled mechanical damage and electrochemistry in ternary oxide composite electrodes

Performance degradation of ternary layered oxide cathodes largely originates from their loss of structural integrity in cyclic usage. Mechanical damage, such as intergranular fracture of the active particles, is not only a mechanical cleavage process but also interferes with electrochemical kinetics such as infiltration of liquid electrolyte, surface corrosion of the constituent primary particles, and may eventually isolate the primary grains from the electron conducting network. Here, in this work, we develop a computational framework that integrates electrochemistry of a LiNi x Mn y Co 1−x−y O 2 (NMC) composite cathode with mechanical damage of the active particles. To fully examine the intricate chemomechanical behavior of the electrode, we evaluate the effects of the anisotropic material properties, the influence of mechanical potential on Li transport, and the concurrent intergranular fracture and electrolyte penetration along the grain boundaries upon multiple cycles. Electrolyte infiltration benefits capacity retention but aggravates further mechanical damage by corrosion. Structural failure mostly occurs in the first charging due to the anisotropic mechanical strain between the primary grains, while the resulting damage remains stable in the later few cycles. The results are consistent with experimental observations and the integration of electrochemistry and mechanical failure enables a step further understanding of the complex mechanism of battery degradation.

Battery degradation↗
DOE OSTI2025

Angular-spatial hp -adaptivity for radiative transfer with discontinuous Galerkin spectral element methods

Radiative transfer is important for many science and engineering applications, and numerical simulations of radiative transfer can be challenging. For instance, the radiation field is seven-dimensional – three spatial, two angular, one wavelength, and one temporal – and often features steep gradients. Therefore, memory usage is a key issue. To reduce memory, some past work has investigated the use of adaptive mesh refinement (AMR), typically for either the spatial or angular coordinate, and typically for only h -adaptivity. Here, we propose the use of AMR for the spatial and angular coordinates together, and the use of h - and p -adaptivity together as hp -AMR for the potential for further memory savings. We implemented the proposed method for several test cases in two spatial and one angular dimension, with the discontinuous Galerkin spectral element method. These test cases featured highly anisotropic angular radiation, with or without steep spatial gradients. Our primary findings from these test cases were: (1) Angular hp -adaptivity can deliver the radiation solution with the same accuracy as, and with much less computational memory than, uniform angular h - or p -refinements, or angular h -adaptivity alone. This is most obvious when the incoming radiation is highly anisotropic, in which case the savings can be orders of magnitude. (2) Full spatial-angular hp -adaptivity is more efficient in solution representation, compared to solely spatial or solely angular -adaptivity. This is most evident when steep gradients are present in both the spatial and angular distribution. These results suggest that adaptive spatial- hp angular-refinement may perform well in large-scale seven-dimensional applications.

Adaptive refinement↗
DOE OSTI2022

Crystalline compounds for remediation of rare-earth fission products: A review

Rare-earth (RE) containing crystals have been investigated as media for the immobilization of RE fission products. During reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels, various fission products including REs, alkalis, and alkaline earths are found after the extraction of actinides. One viable option to immobilize the RE fission products is to incorporate them into chemically durable crystalline phases in specific waste forms. This study summarizes the crystal structures and synthesis methods of six RE-containing compounds that have applications in remediation of RE fission products. These compounds include oxyapatite [Ca2RE8(SiO4)6O2], oxychloride [REOCl], borosilicate [RE3BSi2O10], pyrochlore [RE2A2O7], monazite [REPO4], and perovskite [REAO3] where A denotes transitional metals. This review provides an overview of literature on the usage of these six compounds for immobilizing RE fission products and summarizes different synthesis methods for producing these compounds. Comparisons of structural parameters with different REs in each compound are also discussed.

rare-earth oxychloride, rare-earth oxyapatite, rar↗
DOE OSTI2013

Morphology control of open-framework zinc phosphate Zn{sub 4}(H{sub 3}O)(NH{sub 4}){sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 4} via microwave-assisted technique

Open-framework zinc phosphates were synthesized by microwave-assisted technique, and it was shown that the morphology of as-prepared materials could be easily tailored by changing synthesis temperature, reaction time and pH value. During the synthesis, when the reaction temperature increases from 130 °C to 220 °C, the products transformed from hexagonal prisms to polyhedron along with the disappearance of the hexagonal prisms vertical plane. Simultaneously, both the reaction time and pH value could promote the nucleation and growth of crystal particles. More interestingly, the target products with different morphologies could be obtained by varying the usage of NaOH or NH{sub 3}·H{sub 2}O at 130 °C during the microwave synthesis process. - Graphical abstract: Zinc phosphates with variable morphologies can be obtained by simply tuning the microwave-heating temperatures. Display Omitted - Highlights: • Synthesis of open-framework Zn{sub 4} (H{sub 3}O) (NH{sub 4}){sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 4} compounds employing microwave technique. • Dependence of morphology on the reaction conditions. • Morphology transformation from hexagonal prisms to polyhedron was observed.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2015

Low temperature phase transition and crystal structure of CsMgPO{sub 4}

CsMgPO{sub 4} doped with radioisotopes is a promising compound for usage as a radioactive medical source. However, a low temperature phase transition at temperatures close to ambient conditions (∼−40 °C) was observed. Information about such kind of structural changes is important in order to understand whether it can cause any problem for medical use of this compound. The phase transition has been investigated in detail using synchrotron powder diffraction, Raman spectroscopy and DFT calculations. The structure undergoes a transformation from an orthorhombic modification, space group Pnma (RT phase) to a monoclinic polymorph, space group P2{sub 1}/n (LT phase). New LT modification adopts similar to RT but slightly distorted unit cell: a=9.58199(2) Å, b=8.95501(1) Å, c=5.50344(2) Å, β=90.68583(1)°, V=472.198(3) Å{sup 3}. CsMgPO{sub 4} belongs to the group of framework compounds and is made up of strictly alternating MgO{sub 4}- and PO{sub 4}-tetrahedra sharing vertices. The cesium counter cations are located in the resulting channel-like cavities. Upon the transformation a combined tilting of the tetrahedra is observed. A comparison with other phase transitions in ABW-type framework compounds is given. - Graphical abstract: Structural behavior of β-tridymite-type phosphate CsMgPO{sub 4}, considered as potential chemical form for radioactive Cs-source has been studied at near ambient temperatures. A phase transition at (∼−40 °C) has been found and investigated. It has been established that the known orthorhombic RT modification, space group Pnma, adopts a monoclinic cell with space group P2{sub 1}/n at low temperatures. In this paper, we present results of structural analysis of changes accompanying this phase transition and discuss its possible impact on the application properties. - Highlights: • β-Tridymite type phosphate CsMgPO{sub 4} undergoes so called translationengleiche phase transition of index 2 at −40 °C. • The structure transforms from an orthorhombic (space group Pnma) to a monoclinic (space group P2{sub 1}/n) phase. • In comparison with the RT form, the LT modification adopts a similar but slightly distorted unit cell.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2016

Solid state synthesis, crystal growth and optical properties of urea and p-chloronitrobenzene solid solution

Urea is an attractive material for frequency conversion of high power lasers to UV (for wavelength down to 190 nm), but its usage is hindered due to its hygroscopic nature, though there is no alternative organic NLO crystal which could be transparent up to 190 nm. The hygroscopic character of urea has been modified by making the solid solution (UCNB) of urea (U) and p-chloronitrobenzene (CNB). The formation of the solid solution of CNB in U is explained on the basis of phase diagram, powder XRD, FTIR, elemental analysis and single crystal XRD studies. The solubility of U, CNB and UCNB in ethanol solution is evaluated at different temperatures. Transparent single crystals of UCNB are grown from its saturated solution in ethanol. Optical properties e.g., second harmonic generation (SHG), refractive index and the band gap for UCNB crystal were measured and their values were compared with the parent compounds. Besides modification in hygroscopic nature, UCNB has also shown the higher SHG signal and mechanical hardness in comparison to urea crystal. - Highlights: • The hygroscopic character of urea was modified by making the solid solution • Solid solution formation is support by elemental, powder- and single crystal XRD • Crystal of solid solution has higher SHG signal and mechanical stability. • Refractive index and band gap of solid solution crystal have determined.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2016

Low-temperature synthesis of CuFeO{sub 2} (delafossite) at 70 °C: A new process solely by precipitation and ageing

This study presents a new low temperature synthesis method to obtain pure delafossite (Cu{sup 1+}Fe{sup 3+}O{sub 2}) at a temperature of 70 °C within 24 h. For the first time delafossite is synthesized solely by precipitation and subsequent ageing process and without usage of any additives controlling the oxidation state of copper. The synthesized material, called LT-delafossite, consists of pure Cu{sup 1+}Fe{sup 3+}O{sub 2} exclusive of any side products. Rietveld analysis confirms the presence of both 3R (space group (SG): R-3m) and 2H (SG: P6{sub 3}/mmc) polytypes in LT-delafossite. Electron microscopy images show nanometer-sized hexagonal plates with a diameter <500 nm and a thickness of <30 nm. Measurements of the magnetic susceptibility from 2 K to 350 K in zero-field show one peak ∼18.5 K, which is attributed to an AFM phase transition. Zero-field-cooled magnetization data between −14 T and +14 T at 2 K revealed an s-shape form around the origin having no remanent magnetization. - Highlights: • New process: low temperature synthesis of pure CuFeO{sub 2} nanoparticles. • Synthesis at 70 °C within 24 h solely by precipitation and ageing. • Nanoparticle characterization by XRD, FTIR, SEM, ICP–OES, TEM and Mößbauer. • Special magnetic properties of nano-sized CuFeO{sub 2} synthesized at low temperatures.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗