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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Battery Performance and Cost Model (BatPaC) Version 6.0

SF-26-016 The Battery Performance and Cost model (BatPaC) is a calculation method based on Microsoft Excel spreadsheets that has been developed at Argonne for estimating the performance and manufacturing cost of lithium-ion batteries for electric-drive vehicles including hybrid-electrics (HEV), plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) and pure electrics. BatPaC was first developed in 2007, was subsequently peer reviewed, and it has served Argonne researchers and the greater battery community in studying the impact of material properties on performance at the pack level. BatPaC has been updated and re-released multiple times since its original public release in 2011. This current version is BatPaC 6.0, which contains additional functionality needed to handle advances in automotive batteries, like the use of lithium metal and silicon anodes and the need to accommodate cell expansion and apply high levels of pressure.

KNEHR, KEVIN [Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), A↗
DOE OSTI2025

Impact of Module Configuration on Lithium-Ion Battery Performance and Degradation: Part I. Energy Throughput, Voltage Spread, and Current Distribution

Batteries are commonly connected in series and parallel to create modules that fulfill the power and energy requirements of specific applications. However, conclusions about battery performance and degradation under different conditions, as well as predictive models, are often derived from single cell cycling results. In this study, we evaluate the performance of six different series-parallel configurations of commercial lithium nickel manganese cobalt cells over hundreds of cycles. Each cell within the modules was individually instrumented for voltage, current, and temperature monitoring. We quantified the impact of module configuration on overall energy throughput, the voltage spread among series-connected cells, and the current heterogeneity in parallel-connected cells. This module cycling study, one of the broadest reported to date, supports systematic evaluation of the performance trade-offs, pack penalty, and safety implications of different module configurations.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Low-Rate Cycling Regeneration Sustains NMC811–Graphite Battery Performance through Extreme Ultrafast Charging

Urban air mobility (UAM) systems, such as electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft, require batteries capable of extreme ultrafast charging to support high-frequency operations. Here, in this work, we evaluate the electrochemical stability of NMC811–graphite full cells using a complex mixed-modal protocol designed to simulate the aggressive turnaround demands of UAM missions. We demonstrate that incorporating a periodic low-rate (0.3C) “regeneration” cycle enables cells to maintain 96% capacity retention over 900 cycles, despite repeated exposure to ultrafast pulses. To validate the efficacy of this regeneration mechanism, we performed simplified control experiments comparing continuous 10C charging against a 10C–0.3C interleaved protocol. Advanced characterization reveals that while mechanical particle fracture is pervasive at these rates, the regeneration cycles decelerate the electrochemical degradation by resolving spatially heterogeneous Ni oxidation states and relaxing lithium-ion concentration gradients. These findings provide a vital mechanistic framework for battery operation, proving that restorative charging can effectively delay and mitigate failure in demanding UAM applications.

batteries↗
DOE OSTI2025

Impact of Electrolyte Solvent on Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 /LiNi 0.90 Mn 0.05 Co 0.05 O 2 Battery Performance for Behind-the-Meter Storage Applications

Behind-the-Meter Storage (BTMS) systems require dedicated development of battery materials that target long cycle life and low cost at the system level. Pairing Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 (LTO) and LiNi 0.9 Mn 0.05 Co 0.05 O 2 (NMC90-5-5) shows promise to achieve targets for BTMS applications; however, minimal literature is available that discusses electrolyte solvent selection for this pairing. This study explores the role of electrolyte solvent on cycle life in LTO/NMC90-5-5 batteries. Four model electrolytes are evaluated; the baseline, Gen2, is compared with 1M LiPF 6 added to each of three separate solvents: ethylene carbonate (EC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), and fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC). An additional consideration is that NMC90-5-5 undergoes an H2→H3 phase transition that allows for a significant increase to capacity; however, it’s unclear how this phase transition impacts electrolyte stability and cycle life. Therefore, the phase transition is avoided or accessed by cycling to 2.6V or 2.7V, respectively. The cells with Gen2, cycled to 2.6V, show the highest capacity retention due to EC passivating the LTO, EMC improving stability at the NMC90-5-5, and avoiding increased degradation from the 2.7V protocol. Despite having high initial reactivity that causes Li-depletion, FEC was the only solvent to avoid increased degradation when moving to the higher termination voltage.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effects of ambient temperature on electric vehicle range considering battery Performance, powertrain Efficiency, and HVAC load

Here, this study investigates the impact of ambient temperature on the range of electric vehicles (EVs) by analyzing its effects on usable battery energy (UBE), heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) energy consumption, and powertrain energy losses. Chassis dynamometer tests within a thermal chamber were conducted under various temperature conditions to investigate these impacts. The results indicate that lower temperatures lead to a decrease in UBE for lithium-ion batteries in EVs. At −18 °C, the UBE exhibited reductions of 4---8 % compared to the UBE at 22 °C. Battery thermal management strategies significantly affected the UBE loss, with different strategies resulting in distinct UBE reductions. HVAC energy consumption, especially for interior heating, proved to be the most dominant variable affecting EV driving range. Larger discrepancies between the HVAC target temperature (22 °C) and the ambient temperature increased HVAC energy usage. The type of HVAC system also influenced energy consumption, where EVs equipped with heat pumps demonstrated lower energy consumption for heating compared to those relying solely on resistance heaters. Ambient temperature also influenced motor energy consumption due to increased frictions, powertrain losses and tire rolling resistance at lower temperatures; consequently, regenerative braking energy decreased in cold conditions. Combining these effects influenced the overall energy consumption and driving range of EVs. At −18 °C, the driving range saw a substantial decrease of up to 60 % compared to 22 °C, while a slight decrease was observed at 35 °C.

Ambient Temperature↗
DOE OSTI2024

Hydrogen Production and Li-Ion Battery Performance with MoS2-SiNWs-SWNTs@ZnONPs Nanocomposites

This study explores the hydrogen generation potential via water-splitting reactions under UV-vis radiation by using a synergistic assembly of ZnO nanoparticles integrated with MoS2, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), and crystalline silicon nanowires (SiNWs) to create the MoS2-SiNWs-SWNTs@ZnONPs nanocomposites. A comparative analysis of MoS2 synthesized through chemical and physical exfoliation methods revealed that the chemically exfoliated MoS2 exhibited superior performance, thereby being selected for all subsequent measurements. The nanostructured materials demonstrated exceptional surface characteristics, with specific surface areas exceeding 300 m2 g−1. Notably, the hydrogen production rate achieved by a composite comprising 5% MoS2, 1.7% SiNWs, and 13.3% SWNTs at an 80% ZnONPs base was approximately 3909 µmol h−1g−1 under 500 nm wavelength radiation, marking a significant improvement of over 40-fold relative to pristine ZnONPs. This enhancement underscores the remarkable photocatalytic efficiency of the composites, maintaining high hydrogen production rates above 1500 µmol h−1g−1 even under radiation wavelengths exceeding 600 nm. Furthermore, the potential of these composites for energy storage and conversion applications, specifically within rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, was investigated. Composites, similar to those utilized for hydrogen production but excluding ZnONPs to address its limited theoretical capacity and electrical conductivity, were developed. The focus was on utilizing MoS2, SiNWs, and SWNTs as anode materials for Li-ion batteries. This strategic combination significantly improved the electronic conductivity and mechanical stability of the composite. Specifically, the composite with 56% MoS2, 24% SiNWs, and 20% SWNTs offered remarkable cyclic performance with high specific capacity values, achieving a complete stability of 1000 mA h g−1 after 100 cycles at 1 A g−1. These results illuminate the dual utility of the composites, not only as innovative catalysts for hydrogen production but also as advanced materials for energy storage technologies, showcasing their potential in contributing to sustainable energy solutions.

Chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2026

Revealing multiscale competing processes in the solid-state synthesis of single-crystalline layered oxide positive electrodes

Solid-state synthesis involves a web of coupled chemical reactions and physical changes that unfold across multiple scales. Efforts to fine-tune its parameters have historically followed heuristic, trial-driven workflows that demand significant time and resources. In this study, we aimed to open this black box by employing multiscale in situ synchrotron imaging and diffraction. Using LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 battery positive electrode material as a model system and Ba-based sintering aids, we reveal dopant segregation, intergranular mass transport, and porosity evolution as key drivers of single-crystalline particle formation. Notably, we uncovered a dynamic competition between particle-level grain coalescence and atomic-scale cation disordering, both of which are thermally activated yet have opposing impacts on battery performance. These findings highlight the coupled, multiscale nature of structure development and offer a mechanistic basis for optimizing the solid-state synthesis process. This framework provides a path toward more controlled, efficient, and scalable production of high-performance battery positive electrode materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Recycled graphite enabled superior performance for lithium ion batteries

Recycling graphite attracts growing attention since cumulative amount of spent Li-ion batteries and the shortage of graphite supply chain. Although various recycling methods have been reported, the recycled graphite cannot reach the strict commercial standards of purity, scalability, efficiency, and capacity, preventing it from battery manufacturing. Herein, the important roles of defects and functional groups on the graphite surface are deeply studied, and a closed-loop graphite recycling process with the surface recovery and modification for the graphite from the end-of-life batteries is demonstrated. The recovered graphite delivers a purity of over 99.9 % and an average initial coulombic efficiency of 91.5 %. Compared with commercial graphite in industrial standard battery testing parameters, full cells with recovered graphite possess enhanced rate reversibility, doubled cycle life, over 10 % higher capacity along with half anode material cost. In conclusion, these impressive results not only underscore the transformative potential of surface reconstruction and modification in graphite recycling, but also present economic feasibility and sustainable pathway for significantly improving battery performance and addressing global resource challenges via integration with the hydrometallurgical recycling process.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Forecasting Battery Electrode Performance via Electrochemical Fluorescence Microscopy and Machine-Learning

Predicting lithium-ion battery performance is hindered by microscale electrode heterogeneities invisible to conventional diagnostics. Here, we combine electrochemical fluorescence microscopy (EFM), which maps electronic connectivity by visualizing an electrofluorophore reaction distribution, with a multitask ElasticNet regression to forecast discharge capacity from spatial heterogeneity. Analyzing 196 images from six pilot-scale LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 cathodes with varying carbon loadings, we extract 62 descriptors that capture morphology and texture. A compact five-feature model predicts capacity across eight discharge rates, achieving a per-target R 2 of up to 0.63 and an overall R 2 of 0.92, with a mean absolute percentage error of less than 2%. This performance rivals impedance-based approaches while avoiding their reliance on postformation data and incomplete electronic network information. Our facile and rapid, image-driven method may enable electrode quality control upstream of costly cell assembly to offer a transformative tool for data-driven battery research and manufacturing.

battery electrodes↗
DOE OSTI2025

Exploring Electrode-Level State-of-Charge and State-of-Health Dynamics in Lithium-Ion Battery Cells: Modeling and Experimental Identification

A computationally efficient model serves as a critical prerequisite for battery performance analysis and advanced battery management algorithm design. Although battery models that capture cell-level behavior have been widely explored in existing literature, electrode-level battery models have received much lesser attention till to date. However, such electrode-level models can significantly increase battery performance and life by enabling electrode-level health-conscious control. Such electrode-level control can effectively expand usable energy and power limits of the battery cells by utilizing the knowledge of individual electrodes' charge and health. In this context, this paper presents a comprehensive battery model developed with a reference electrode insertion that captures (i) electrode-level charge/discharge dynamics, (ii) stoichiometric and temporal dependencies of electrode-level resistances, (iii) solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer growth as key degradation phenomenon, and (iv) capacity fade and resistance rise in each electrode due to nominal battery aging. The proposed model is identified, and a preliminary validation is performed utilizing terminal voltage and negative electrode potential data collected from a pouch cell under one continuous cycling and accelerated aging conditions where the cell experienced 14% capacity loss.

aging↗
DOE OSTI2025

A quantitative figure of merit for battery SEI films and their use as functional solid-state electrolytes

As a key passivation film that governs battery operation, the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) has long been credited for enabling high-performance batteries or blamed for their eventual death. However, qualitative descriptions of the SEI often found in the literature (e.g., “conductive,” “passivating”) highlight our incomplete understanding of this layer, where even the most basic properties foundational to SEI function remain difficult to measure. Here, we quantify SEI conductivities and SEI transference numbers using a separator-free Cu|SEI|Li architecture that treats the SEI as a functional solid-state electrolyte (SSE). We find that while any SEI property alone (e.g., electronic conductivity) is weakly correlated (R 2 < 0.67) with battery performance (e.g., Coulombic efficiency), a strong correlation (R 2 > 0.99) can be achieved by defining the “SEI cT number” as a product between the SEI transference number (T) and the ratio of SEI conductivities (c). Analogous to the thermoelectric figure of merit (i.e., zT ), SEI cT quantitatively benchmarks the holistic impact of SEI properties on battery performance and underscores the pitfalls of citing such properties in isolation. Perhaps most strikingly, we demonstrate that Li metal deposition and stripping at room temperature is possible in our separator-free Cu|SEI|Li cell, confirming that the SEI can function precisely as an SSE. Together, these results enrich our understanding of the SEI, not just as a passivation layer but as a functional structure that can potentially have important implications for solid-state batteries.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗
DOE OSTI2025

Stochastic 3D reconstruction of cracked polycrystalline NMC particles using 2D SEM data

Li-ion battery performance is strongly influenced by the 3D microstructure of its cathode particles. Cracks within these particles develop during calendaring and cycling, reducing connectivity but increasing reactive surface, making their impact on battery performance complex. Understanding these contradictory effects requires a quantitative link between particle morphology and battery performance. However, informative 3D imaging techniques are time-consuming, costly and rarely available, such that analyses often have to rely on 2D image data. This paper presents a novel stereological approach for generating virtual 3D cathode particles exhibiting crack networks that are statistically equivalent to those observed in 2D sections of experimentally measured particles. Consequently, 2D image data suffices for deriving a full 3D characterization of cracked cathodes particles. Such virtually generated 3D particles could serve as geometry input for spatially resolved electro-chemo-mechanical simulations to enhance our understanding of structure-property relationships of cathodes in Li-ion batteries.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Valuation of Anode Materials for High-Performance Lithium Batteries: From Graphite to Lithium Metal and Beyond

Lithium-ion batteries have revolutionized energy storage, yet advanced technologies such as electric vehicles and eVTOLs demand even higher performance and safety. Anodes, the negative electrodes, are crucial in enhancing batteries’ safety, lifespan, and fast-charging capabilities. This review paper comprehensively evaluates the progression of anode materials from traditional graphite to advanced anodes like lithium metal. Graphite anodes, with a capacity of 372 mAh g −1 , enabled the first commercial lithium-ion batteries, but future applications require higher energy densities and fast-charging capabilities. Emerging anode materials, including alloying, and conversion types, as well as lithium metal, offer significantly higher capacities, with lithium metal offering a theoretical capacity of 3 860 mAh g −1 . However, these advanced anodes face challenges such as volume expansion, high surface reactivity, sluggish Li+ kinetics, and unstable lithium deposition morphologies. Here, this review critically examines the electrochemical performance, interfacial properties, mechanical attributes, and stability issues of various anode materials. It further discusses solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation, strategies for enhancing interface stability, and the requirements of anodes for solid-state batteries. Additionally, the review explores potential solutions for limitations with each anode type, highlights innovative anode-free architectures, and evaluates the current and future trends of battery anode industries. Ultimately, this paper aims to guide the development of high-performance anode materials, paving the way for the next generation of efficient, reliable lithium batteries.

Alloying anodes↗
DOE OSTI2026

Atomic-Scale Imaging of Lithium Vacancies in a Battery Cathode by Multislice Electron Ptychography

Atomic-resolution imaging of battery materials is critical for identification of local defects and structural variations, which are tied to battery performance. However, since battery materials are, by design, optimized to allow ion motion in response to an applied electric field, they are also very sensitive to radiation damage by an electron beam. Image resolution is therefore severely constrained by the dose applied. Here, we show that multislice electron ptychography (MEP) can provide sub-ångström lateral resolution images of both light and heavy elements of a Li-ion battery cathode, along with nanometer-scale depth information and greater dose efficiency than conventional electron microscopy methods. Using the depth-sectioning capability of MEP, we have been able to obtain direct visualizations of Li vacancy clusters, atom column by atom column, in Li x Ni 0.33 Mn 0.33 Co 0.33 O 2 (NMC111) cathodes. This capability to track Li distributions will be valuable in understanding, informing, and optimizing electrode material design for ion storage and transfer.

batteries↗