Densification of Ionic Liquid Molecules within a Hierarchical Nanoporous Carbon Structure Revealed by Small Angle Scattering and Molecular Dynamics Simulation
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catalysis (heterogeneous)↗
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Task 4 supporting technology. Densification requirements definition and test objectives. Propellant densification requirements definition
The primary challenge of the X-33 CAN is to build and test a prototype LO2 and LH2 densification ground support equipment (GSE) unit, and perform tank thermodynamic testing within the 15 month phase 1 period. The LO2 and LH2 propellant densification system will be scaled for the IPTD LO2 and LH2 tank configurations. The IPTD tanks were selected for the propellant technology demonstration because of the potential benefits to the phase 1 plan: tanks will be built in time to support thermodynamic testing; minimum cost; minimum schedule risk; future testing at MSFC will build on phase 1 data base; and densification system will be available to support X-33 and RLV engine test at IPTD. The objective of the task 1 effort is to define the preliminary requirements of the propellant densification GSE and tank recirculation system. The key densification system design parameters to be established in Task 1 are: recirculation flow rate; heat exchanger inlet temperature; heat exchanger outlet temperature; maximum heat rejection rate; vent flow rate (GN2 and GH2); densification time; and tank pressure level.
Lak, Tibor↗
Sol-gel synthesis and densification of aluminoborosilicate powders. Part 2: Densification
Aluminoborosilicate (ABS) powders, high in alumina content, were synthesized by the sol-gel process utilizing four different methods of synthesis. The effect of these methods on the densification behavior of ABS powder compacts was studied. Five regions of shrinkage in the temperature range 25-1184 C were identified. In these regions, the greatest shrinkage occurred between the gel-to-glass transition temperature (T sub g approximately equal to 835 C) and the crystallization transformation temperature (T sub t approximately equal 900 C). The dominant mechanism of densification in this range was found to be viscous sintering. ABS powders were amorphous to x-rays up to T sub t at which a multiphasic structure crystallized. No 2Al2O3.B2O3 was found in these powders as predicted in the phase diagram. Above T sub t, densification was the result of competing mechanisms including grain growth and boria fluxed viscous sintering. Apparent activation energies for densification in each region varied according to the method of synthesis.
Bull, Jeffrey↗
Pressure-induced densification in GeO{sub 2} glass: A transmission x-ray microscopy study
Nanoscale transmission x-ray microscopy measurements have been performed to determine the effect of pressure (P) on the volume (V) change in GeO{sub 2} glass up to 38.5 GPa. The P-V data show a continuous increase upon compression, indicating that the density-driven structural transformation is a gradual process. Over the pressure range studied, a transition is observed at approximately 10–13 GPa, where the material displays distinct compression behaviors. The pressure-induced densification that involves the coordination number change has been discussed. Using this newly developed high-pressure imaging technique with tens of nanometer resolution, we have provided a direct and unequivocal way for measuring density of amorphous materials to much higher pressures with accuracy rivaling x-ray diffraction of crystalline solids.
75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
Densification mechanism and mechanical properties of tungsten powder consolidated by spark plasma sintering
Not provided.
Materials Science↗
Coarsening, densification, and grain growth during sintering of nano-sized powders—A perspective
Not provided.
Materials Science↗
Phase-field simulations of the impact of bimodal pore size distributions on solid-state densification
Not provided.
Materials Science↗
Single-step densification of nanocrystalline CeO 2 by the cold sintering process
Not provided.
Materials Science↗
The significance of biomass densification in biological-based biorefineries: A critical review
Replacing fossil fuels with renewable biofuels derived from lignocellulosic biomass is an important aspect of addressing environmental challenges and developing a sustainable industrial society. Densification overcomes the problems of low bulk density and poor flowability of biomass and has been commercialized for producing solid biofuels, but the overall impact of densification on biological-based biorefineries that primarily target liquid fuels (e.g., ethanol) is still under investigation. Herein, this review provides a thorough summary of the application of densified biomass in biological-based biorefineries. First, the effects of densification parameters as well as variables of biomass materials on the densified products’ quality are reviewed, and different commonly used densification technologies are also discussed and compared. Then, the discussion focuses on the physiochemical modifications of biomass caused by densification that may influence further pretreatment and/or enzymatic hydrolysis in biorefineries. Industrial pelleting has been generally shown to exhibit positive/neutral effects on the enzymatic hydrolysis of multiple biomass feedstocks after pretreatments, indicating the viability of using pellets as starting feedstocks in biorefineries. Densification causes structural disruption of biomass, which may facilitate further biochemical conversions. Integrating biomass densification in the feedstock supply chain is feasible for large-scale biorefineries to overcome the techno-economic barriers and become profitable. Suggestions are presented for the efficiency enhancement and cost reduction in densification-based biorefineries. To enable wider applications, it is now the time to employ more demo and full-scale activities in different regions of the world pushing the research and innovation of densification integrated within biorefining.
09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
Modeling the Effects of Microwave Heating on Densification in Chemical Vapor Infiltration
Microwave heating has great potential to accelerate the synthesis of ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) by a process called Chemical Vapor Infiltration (CVI). In CVI, reactive gases ingress a porous preform and undergo chemical transformation to deposit solid ceramic phase within the pores at high temperature thus, densifying the preform. However, the competing effects of chemical kinetics and gas transport are known to result in non-uniform densification as the outer surfaces of the preform experience faster depositions compared to the core. Achieving spatial temperature control plays a key role improving the densification quality. Microwave heating can potentially create temperature inversion such that the core of the preform is hotter than the outer surface and subsequently, lead to improved densification while keeping the manufacturing times and costs low. In the present work, a computational modeling strategy has been developed that accounts for the key physical phenomena responsible for densification of porous preforms using microwave heating. Specifically, a chemical kinetics model has been formulated for Silicon Carbide (SiC) deposition from MTS/H2 precursor. The model is implemented in a pore-resolved reactive transport solver, Quilt. The CVI simulations are performed for several conditions. Initially, parameterized temperature control is imposed to identify optimum conditions for good densification quality at a fraction of processing time. Further, simulations of microwave heating of porous SiC preforms are performed using OpenFOAM. A strategy to achieve and enhance temperature inversion is identified. The resulting temperature profiles are used in the pore-resolved densification simulations to analyze the densification behavior. It is observed that the temperature inversion achieved by microwave heating leads to significant improvements in densification quality and at the same time, keeps the manufacturing time low.
36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
Influence of TiO 2 on the densification behaviour of Yb 2 O 3
The effect of temperature and heating rate on the densification of ytterbia (Yb 2 O 3 ), with and without titania (TiO 2 ) doping was investigated. It is shown that up to a certain doping level, titania doping enhances the densification behaviour of ytterbia. The effect of titania doping on crystal structure confirms that titania is substitutionally incorporated in ytterbia up to the solubility limit, which corresponds well with the densification results. The increased densification rate of titania-doped ytterbia is attributed to the formation of cation vacancy and lattice distortion. Using constant heating rate experiments, the activation energy for densification has been calculated and it is shown that in the intermediate density range (60% to 85%), the activation energy is independent of the density. Furthermore, titania doping increases the activation energy for densification.
20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
Effects of temperature inversion on densification in chemical vapor infiltration
In a classical chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) process, the competing effects of chemical kinetics and reagent gas transport lead to non–uniform depositions such that outer layers of a preform densify faster leaving the core highly porous. Currently, CVI must be performed at a sufficiently low temperature to achieve good densification quality which leads to high processing time and cost. Volumetric heating of the preform, especially through microwaves, can create temperature inversion such that the core is hotter than the outer surface and potentially, overcome the challenges associated with isothermal CVI. Direct numerical simulations (DNS) of densification under various such temperature distributions indicate that microwave heating in CVI processing can lead to better (uniform) densification of porous preforms. Here the role of key parameters describing the temperature distributions on the densification behavior is investigated. Strategic temporal control of the temperature distribution shows that processing times can be reduced by almost half while maintaining a good densification quality similar to that of low–temperature isothermal processing. Inside–out densification due to the inverted temperature profile is a key distinguishing characteristic of microwave assisted CVI.
37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
Propellant Densification Ground Testing Conducted for Launch Vehicles
The NASA Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field has taken the lead in the development of practical densified cryogenic propellants for launch vehicle applications. The technology of subcooling cryogenic propellants below their normal boiling point to produce a denser fluid is one of the key process technologies necessary to meet the challenge of single-stage-to-orbit and reusable launch vehicles. Densified propellants are critical to lowering launch costs because they enable more propellant to be packed into a given unit volume, thus improving the performance by reducing the overall size and weight of the launch vehicle. This two-pronged research and test program has evolved into (1) conducting tank loading tests using densified liquid hydrogen and (2) developing two large-scale propellant densification systems that will be performance tested next year at Glenn. The propellant-loading test program was undertaken at Glenn in coordination with Lockheed Martin Michoud Space Systems. In this testing, the liquid hydrogen recirculation and densification process was simulated, and the thermal stratification of the densified propellant was recorded throughout the tank. The test article was a flight-weight tank constructed from composite materials similar to those to be used on the X-33 launch vehicle. The tank geometry as designed by Lockheed Martin had two cylindrical lobes with a center septum. Liquid hydrogen flow rate, pressure data, and temperature data plotted over time were collected while the subscale tank was filled with 27 R (15 K) densified liquid hydrogen propellant. This testing has validated mathematical models and demonstrated the readiness of densified propellant technology for near-term use. It marks the first time that such a process has been carried out with a multiple-lobe, flight-similar tank. Glenn researchers have also been working on providing a process and critical test data for the continuous production of densified liquid hydrogen (LH2) and densified liquid oxygen (LO2). Each densification production process uses a high-efficiency, subatmospheric boiling bath heat exchanger to cool the working fluid. A near triple-point hydrogen boiling bath is used to condition and subcool hydrogen to 27 R (15 K), and a nitrogen boiling bath is used to cool the liquid oxygen to 120 R (66.7 K). Multistage centrifugal compressors operating at cryogenic inlet conditions maintain the heat exchanger bath vapor pressure below 1 atm. The LO2 propellant densification unit shown in the photograph has a 30 lb/sec capacity, whereas the LH2 unit was designed to process 8 lb/sec of propellant. Each densification unit will be transported to Glenn's South Forty area after all fabrication work is completed sometime late next year. There the LO2 and LH2 densifier performance tests will be conducted with another larger Lockheed Martin tank designated the Structural Test Article (STA). This liquid oxygen tank is a full-scale, flight-weight, prototype aluminum tank designed for the X-33. It has a capacity of 20,000 gallons of LO2. The tank loading and recirculation testing planned for next year with STA will provide the data necessary for full-scale development of propellant densification technology.
Tomsik, Thomas M.↗
Propellant Densification for Shuttle: The SSME Perspective
The subject of cryogenic propellant densification as a potential upgrade to the Space Shuttle is a subject that has been raised on several occasions over the last decade. Due to advancements in densification technology made as a part of and in parallel to the X-33 project, the subject was raised and studied once again in May 2001. Across the Space Shuttle program people from many disciplines converged to discuss issues and perform trade studies to determine whether densified propellants was worth pursuing. This paper discusses one of these areas, specifically the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME). The effects of propellant densification on steady state performance are presented along with discussions of potential transient performance issues. Engine component redesign and retrofit issues are discussed as well the high level requirements to modify the ground test stands to accommodate propellant densification hardware and tanks. And finally, the matter of programmatic concerns enters the subject at hand as part of a discussion of SSME recertification requirements. In the end, potential benefits to SSME performance can be demonstrated and, subject to the densification scheme chosen, there does not appear to insurmountable technical obstacles.
Greene, William D.↗
A Review on Biomass Densification Systems to Develop Uniform Feedstock Commodities for Bioenergy Application
Developing uniformly formatted, densified feedstock from lignocellulosic biomass is of interest to achieve consistent physical properties like size and shape, bulk and unit density, and durability, which significantly influence storage, transportation and handling characteristics, and, by extension, feedstock cost and quality. A variety of densification systems are considered for producing a uniform format feedstock commodity for bioenergy applications, including (a) baler, (b) pellet mill, (c) cuber, (d) screw extruder, (e) briquette press, (f) roller press, (g) tablet press, and (g) agglomerator. Each of these systems has varying impacts on feedstock chemical and physical properties, and energy consumption. This review discusses the suitability of these densification systems for biomass feedstocks and the impact these systems have on specific energy consumption and end product quality. For example, a briquette press is more flexible in terms of feedstock variables where higher moisture content and larger particles are acceptable for making good quality briquettes; or among different densification systems, a screw press consumes the most energy because it not only compresses but also shears and mixes the material. Pretreatment options like preheating, grinding, steam explosion, torrefaction, and ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX) can also help to reduce specific energy consumption during densification and improve binding characteristics. Binding behavior can also be improved by adding natural binders, such as proteins, or commercial binders, such as lignosulphonates. The quality of the densified biomass for both domestic and international markets is evaluated using PFI (United States Standard) or CEN (European Standard).
09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
Sub-melt nanosecond pulsed-laser induced densification and strain-field relaxation in single-crystal diamond
Dislocations and polishing-induced defect networks in synthetic diamond introduce local strain fields and broaden Raman features, limiting performance in optical, thermal, and electronic applications. Laser annealing is emerging as a promising approach to repair surface and near-surface defects in diamond without entering the melt regime, yet surface densification, defect-state modification, and associated structural changes have not been well quantified. In this work, we show that sub-melt nanosecond pulsed-laser annealing (PLA) induces near-surface densification and defect-mediated strain relaxation in single-crystal Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) diamond. Single- and two-pulse PLA were applied, and structural evolution was quantified using co-registered ISO 25,178 white-light interferometry, depth-resolved Raman spectroscopy, and cross-sectional STEM with geometric phase analysis (GPA). Across a 5 × 6 grid (n = 30), responsive regions exhibit large reductions in local slope (Sdq 45–65%), developed area (Sdr 60–90%), height spread (Sp, Sz 30–65%), void volume (Vv 57–60%), and roughness amplitude (Sa, Sq 48–57%), consistent with densification of ∼4–6.5 nm. Raman profiling shows narrowing of the diamond line and improved spectral uniformity to depths of ∼2–3 μm. Given that the Raman probing depth significantly exceeds the densified layer thickness, this response is interpreted as consistent with long-range strain-field redistribution originating from the near-surface region. STEM-GPA strain maps further support this interpretation, showing smoother strain fields, suppressed hotspots, and redistribution of localized strain concentrations following PLA. These results are consistent with defect-mediated strain relaxation and densification-driven modification of the near-surface energy state. The approach provides a scalable pathway for improving near-surface structural quality in diamond relevant to electronic, photonic, and quantum applications.
Areal surface metrology (ISO 25,178)↗