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DOE OSTI2023

An automated and portable method for selecting an optimal GPU frequency

Power consumption poses a significant challenge in current and emerging graphics processing unit (GPU) enabled high-performance computing systems. In modern GPUs, dynamic voltage frequency scaling (DVFS) appears to be a reliable control to regulate power consumption and performance. However, the DVFS design space is large - hence, brute-force approaches are infeasible to select the optimal frequency. Furthermore, no single frequency can be universally optimal for applications with varying computational intensities. Thus, the application's complexity and the availability of a wide range of frequency settings are a challenge in selecting the optimal frequency configuration for a given GPU workload. To that end, this paper proposes a systematic approach that consists of three steps. The feature characterization study identifies the fine-grain GPU utilization metrics that influence the power consumption and execution time of a given workload. To understand the performance, power, and energy consumption behaviors of a workload across GPU's DVFS design space, we derived analytical power and performance models using the identified fine-grain features. Here, it is shown that the same set of GPU utilization metrics can estimate both the power consumption and execution time while being agnostic of changes to frequency and input sizes. Applying a power control with the single objective of reducing power may cause performance degradation, leading to more energy consumption. A multi-objective approach is proposed to select the optimal GPU DVFS configuration for a workload that reduces power consumption with negligible degradation in performance. The evaluation was conducted using SPEC ACCEL benchmarks and three real applications - NAMD LAMMPS, and LSTM on NVIDIA GV100, GA100, and AMD MI210 GPUs. On average, real applications showed 29.6% energy savings with a performance loss of 5.2% on GA100 and 22.6% energy savings with a performance loss of 4.7% on GV100. Moreover, the proposed models are portable to real applications, GPU architectures, and vendors, and require metric collection at only the default frequency rather than all supported DVFS configurations. Additionally, we conducted a comparison between our models and the GPU assembly instructions (PTX)-based static models. The results revealed a significant reduction in the average error rates, with a decrease from 19.7% to 3.1% for power models and from 29.4% to 5.2% for performance models.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2023

High Impedance Fault Detection Through Quasi-Static State Estimation: A Parameter Error Modeling Approach

This paper presents a model for detecting high impedance faults using parameter error modeling and a two step per-phase weighted-least squares state estimation process. The proposed scheme leverages the use of Phasor Measurement Units and synthetic measurements to identify per-phase power flow and injection measurements which indicate a parameter error through ?2 Hypothesis Testing applied to the composed measurement error. Although current and voltage waveforms are commonly analyzed for high-impedance fault detection, wide area power flow and injection measurements, which are already inherent to the state estimation process, also show promise for real-world high-impedance fault detection applications. The error distributions after detection share the measurement function error spread observed in proven parameter error diagnostics and can be applied to high-impedance fault identification. Further, this error spread across measurement functions related to the fault will be clearly discerned from measurement error. Case studies are performed on the IEEE 33-Bus Distribution System along with the proposed model in Simulink.

Cooper, Austin↗

DOE OSTI2024

Controlling Interfacial Charge Separation Energetics and Kinetics

The overall goal is to probe electron transfer kinetics of the Marcus inverted region at interfaces. This project specifically uses a dye‐semiconductor interface with a reversible electron transfer reagent in solution where the semiconductor conduction band and electron transfer reagent ideally have a potential energy difference firmly within the Marcus inverted region. The goals of this project are: (Goal 1) Identify dye design elements that give dyes with low energy ground‐state oxidation potentials while retaining desirable electron transfer kinetics at the semiconductor interface. (Goal 2) Identify dye designs with excited‐state oxidation potentials set to fixed energies through molecular design while the dye ground‐state oxidation potentials are varied to allow for the evaluation of varied electron transfer reagents/redox shuttles (RS) with different free energies for electron transfer. (Goal 3) Within the context of the functionality identified in goals 1 and 2, goal 3 seeks to design dyes with features maximizing charge carrier lifetimes by minimizing recombination losses at metal oxide interfaces with high voltage systems. (Goal 4) Probe electron transfer kinetics in a high voltage‐dye sensitized solar cell with both the oxidized dye and RS firmly within the Marcus inverted region with regard to the TiO2 CB. (Goal 5) Identify tailored sensitizer/redox shuttle pairs with desirable electron transfer kinetics in defined spectral regions capable of “banding off” incident solar irradiation to give high voltage multijunction systems capable of exceeding the Shockley‐Queisser limit and powering catalytic processes.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Foreword: Special Section on Multiphysics Aspects of Power Electronics Packaging—Power Die, Power Module, and Converter Level: Part 2

Power electronics are increasingly being used to condition electricity for a wide array of applications, such as transportation (on land, air, and water), data centers, radio frequency, directed energy, wind, solar, and grid-tied applications. Here, to increase power density, performance, efficiency, and reliability-as well as to reduce cost-innovations and developments are needed in the multiphysics packaging of power electronics at a die, module, and converter level. This includes fundamental R&D related to emerging high-voltage, high-temperature, and high-switching-frequency power electronics, packaging materials, thermal materials and interfaces, fluid-based thermal management technologies, reliability, condition monitoring, and prognostics. Latest developments in this area are published as a Special Section on Multiphysics Aspects of Power Electronics Packaging. The first part was published in the May 2024 issue of the IEEE Transactions on Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology (Volume 14, Issue 5). The second part of that Special Section is being published in this issue. A brief summary of the papers included in the second part are given below.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2023

Adroit Materials Final Scientific/Technical Report kV-class GaN-based Junction Barrier Schottky diodes using ion implantation

The primary aim of this research was to develop GaN-based Junction Barrier Schottky (JBS) diodes using an innovative ion implantation process previously established in ARPA-E funded projects. The central focus of our proposed technology revolves around selective area p-type doping, accomplished through the implantation of Mg ions. This approach builds upon our successes in the ARPA-E PNDIODES program, advancing towards commercial device integration. Selective area p-doping plays a pivotal role in realizing the next generation of GaN-based power devices, capable of significantly reducing the carbon footprint in the United States by several million tons. While ion implantation is a well-established technique for achieving selective area doping in SiC and Si materials, its feasibility in GaN had not been demonstrated until now. To fabricate high voltage GaN JBS diodes, we initially created thick n-type drift layers with high carrier concentrations ranging from 5×1015 cm-3 to 2×1016 cm-3 and very high mobilities. Subsequently, Mg ions were selectively implanted to form p-type islands within the n-type drift layer. To reduce electric field crowding at the edge of the diode and to achieve high breakdown voltage, junction edge termination (JTE) and floating field rings (FFRs) were formed using Mg implantation. A high temperature, high-pressure post-implantation annealing process was carried out to activate the implanted Mg ions. As a result, we were able to demonstrate GaN JBS diodes with a breakdown voltage of 915 V and an on-resistance of 0.6 mΩ·cm2. These diodes exhibited a forward bias current density of 1 kA/cm2 at 1.5 V. Subsequently, we achieved GaN JBS diodes with a remarkable breakdown voltage of 1900 V and an on-resistance of 1.9 mΩ·cm2, capable of sustaining a forward bias current density of 0.5 kA/cm2 at 1.5 V. Importantly, the ON and OFF state performance of these GaN JBS diodes surpassed that of Si and SiC-based power diodes reported in existing literature. Lastly, we successfully grew 60 μm thick GaN:Si layers using HVPE with a carrier concentration of approximately 3 to 5×1015 cm-3. Based on simulation and empirical data these devices represent 5 kV GaN JBS power diodes, leveraging the developed processes in this project.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

In-Field Testing of Components for Feedback and Control of the ITER Disruption Mitigation System

Here, the shattered pellet injection (SPI) method has been chosen as the disruption mitigation system (DMS) for ITER. To protect the device from plasma disruptions that cause damaging heat and electromagnetic loads, SPI is used to inject high-Z material into the plasma. The process of SPI utilizes cryogenic cooling to form solid pellets. Pellets are accelerated down a barrel and into an angled surface, causing the pellet to shatter prior to entering the tokamak chamber. For the DMS to function reliably, the 27 separate shattered pellet injectors planned for ITER must rely on many components to provide accurate feedback data and for control functions. Each component in the DMS is exposed to an elevated background magnetic field depending on its placement and proximity to the plasma chamber. A Helmholtz coil test stand that is operated at Oak Ridge National Laboratory was utilized to test the components in relevant background field levels to assess component performance. This paper details the test design and results for in-field component operation for a variety of components. This list includes the following components: two different network switches for camera connectivity, a VAT fast shutter valve intended to reduce the flow of SPI propellant gas into the torus, a solenoid control valve intended for use in the pellet formation process, pressure/vacuum switches to be used for feedback and control, a printed circuit board piezo pressure sensor to be used to measure breech pressure, and various relays for the high-voltage pulsed power supply used to drive the SPI propellant valve.

Disruption mitigation↗

DOE OSTI2022

Enhanced Depolarized Electro-Membrane System (EDEMS) for Direct Capture of Carbon Dioxide from Ambient Air (Final Report)

The goal of this final project report is to summarize the work conducted on project DE-FE0031962. In accordance with the Statement of Project Objectives (SOPO), the University of Kentucky Center for Applied Energy Research (UK CAER) (Recipient) developed an intensified process to capture CO2 from ambient conditions (400 ppm CO2). The process combines low-temperature solvent-aided membrane capture with electrochemically-mediated solvent regeneration to simultaneously capture ambient CO2 while regenerating the solvent. The technology employs only two primary units (regenerator and absorber/contactor) while generating high purity hydrogen as a co-product that can be sold, used for energy storage, or cost-saving depolarization of the direct air capture (DAC) system during the grid peak demand, allowing for flexible operation. When depolarization is employed, the operating voltage is reduced by more than 1 V. Since the technology is powered directly by DC electricity, it can seamlessly tie in with power sources like solar cells without the need for AC/DC converters, therefore allowing for a remote operation to further mitigate greenhouse gas generation toward deploying a negative carbon emissions technology that is completely decoupled from the carbon emissions from the power source for the DAC unit. The project results verified that UK CAER’s integrated approach addressed the complexities of incumbent DAC systems by demonstrating at ambient conditions, including (1) low gas-side pressure-drop facile CO2 capture via a membrane contactor with in-situ generated hydroxide as capture solvent, (2) multi-functional electrochemical regenerator for hydroxide regeneration, CO2 concentration and hydrogen production, and (3) depolarization using cathode-produced hydrogen to reduce energy requirement. The EH&S Assessment of the process did not identify any obvious concern for the bench-scale operation and no apparent barriers to implementing UK CAER’s carbon capture and solvent regeneration system at a larger scale.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2025

A VSC-HVDC-Assisted Black-Start Strategy in Bulk Power Systems a Case Study in San Diego

With the worldwide growth in deploying high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems, their ability to facilitate black-start (BS) restoration has been a research topic of interest. In this context, voltage source converter (VSC)-HVDC is regarded as a BS resource, and this paper proposes a VSC-HVDC-assisted parallel BS restoration strategy in bulk power systems. The proposed strategy consists of two stages: 1) determination of the VSC and generator startup sequence and 2) load restoration simulation. In the first stage, the entire blackout system is sectionalized into multiple subsystems. Each subsystem includes a VSC-HVDC station or traditional BS unit, it independently determines its generator startup timeline and the energization timelines for buses and lines. The second stage involves load restoration, conceptualized as a modified unit commitment problem, with the timelines established in the first stage work as critical inputs. The proposed BS restoration strategy is tested on the San Diego power system to simulate the 2011 Southwest blackout. The simulation results validate the effectiveness of using VSC-HVDC links as a BS resource which not only speeds up the restoration process but also reduces both energy and economic losses.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2025

Hydrogen from low-density polyethylene via nonthermal plasma: Effects of energy density and process parameters

Nonthermal plasma processes are promising for the modular valorization of plastic waste, especially into hydrogen and carbon materials, due to their high intensity, lack of reliance on catalysts or consumables, and suitability to be directly powered by electricity. We investigate the production of hydrogen from low-density polyethylene (LDPE) as a plastic waste model using streamer Dielectric Barrier Discharge (sDBD) plasma in nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. Here, we examine the effects of process energy density (energy input per unit of feedstock mass), feedstock mass, and plasma intensity (electric voltage) on plasma properties, hydrogen yield and energy efficiency via gas chromatography, optical emission spectroscopy, and electrical diagnostics, together with reactor-scale and nonlinear electric circuit modeling. The characteristic temperature of free electrons in the sDBD plasma is approximately 15000 K (1.3 eV), and that of gas species 10 times lower, demonstrating strong thermal non-equilibrium that can lead to molecular bond scission via charged species impact rather than direct heating. Experimental results show that higher energy density leads to greater hydrogen production and diminishing energy efficiency, and that higher plasma intensity and larger feedstock mass lead to greater hydrogen yield due to higher plasma temperatures and enhanced energy fluxes to the feedstock.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2026

Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring of EBW Processes A Second Study [Slides]

The Objective is to Determine if induced off-nominal welding disturbances: (1) Beam arc out (weld on high vapor pressure aluminum plate); (2) Pulsed beam voltage; (3) Pulsed beam current; and (4) Pulsed beam focus current can be observed in the input power to the high-voltage cabinet powering the EB gun, ie Non-Instrusive Load Monitoring (NILM).

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Power Electronic Hardware-in-the-Loop (PE-HIL): Testing Individual Controllers in Large-Scale Power Electronics Systems

Large power electronics systems like multi-port autonomous reconfigurable solar power plant (MARS) are increasingly being researched upon to integrate emerging energy sources. MARS connects photovoltaic (PV) systems and energy storage systems (ESSs) to high-voltage direct current (HVdc) links/grids and high-voltage alternating current (ac) transmission grids. As these large power electronics systems incorporate complex hierarchical control systems that are close-by and communicate fast, the control systems require an unique power electronic hardware-in-the-loop (PE-HIL) real-time architecture to evaluate individual controllers. In this paper, a PE-HIL real-time architecture is proposed to evaluate one of the hundreds to thousands of digital signal processors (DSPs) that are a part of the complex hierarchical control system. The DSP connects to a central processing unit (CPU) and a field programmable gate array (FPGA) that form a part of the upper levels of the control system. The DSP is part of the lower level of the control system. The proposed PE-HIL architecture is tested and evaluated. Preliminary test results are presented to showcase the concept.

Debnath, Suman↗

DOE OSTI2025

Cyber‐Resilient Distributed Energy Resource Control Algorithms for Smart Distribution Grids

ABSTRACT This paper focuses on the development of cyber‐resilient gradient‐based optimisation algorithms and theoretical proof for grid‐interactive distributed energy resource (DER) control to enable two grid services of virtual power plants (VPPs) dispatch and grid voltage regulation, considering the communication and security impacts. Firstly, the combined DER dispatch and voltage regulation as a real‐time gradient‐based optimisation problem is recapped. Thereafter, we consider a probabilistic traffic model to characterise packet delays and loss in a communication network, and study how the delays enter the process of information exchange among the grid measurement units, local DER controllers and the grid control centre that execute this control algorithm in a coordinated manner. Then, a strategy combining delay thresholds and message update rules is proposed to immunity the asynchrony resulting from the communications traffic and it avoids possible numerical instabilities and sensitivities of the power tracking and voltage regulation capabilities, resulting as cyber‐resilient DER control algorithms. Additionally, their convergence is theoretically proved. Effectiveness of proposed cyber‐resilient algorithms has been validated on the IEEE 37‐bus system in terms of convergence, VPP tracking and voltage regulation performance for smart distribution systems with high penetration of DERs.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2025

Ink-based laser powder bed fusion of barium titanate

Barium titanate (BTO) is a lead-free functional ceramic that is widely used in sensors, transducers, and actuators. The increasing demand for complex geometries and quick design iterations motivates the use of additive manufacturing techniques. Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) additive manufacturing technique enables the net-shape or near-net-shape fabrication of metals and alloys. Ceramic L-PBF remains challenging due to their high melting temperature. Here, to address this challenge, a nanoparticle ink feedstock was incorporated into the L-PBF process to allow low power melting of BTO. Key print parameters (i.e. laser power, scanning speed, and hatching spacing) were optimized to fabricate millimeter-scale BTO parts. The printed BTO samples possessed an inhomogeneous equiaxed-columnar-cellular microstructure. Semiconducting current-voltage behavior was observed in as-printed samples, which was attributed to the creation of oxygen vacancies. The piezoelectric d 33 coefficient was measured to be 4.6 pC/N.

Dielectrics↗

DOE OSTI2024

Auto Recycler Report: Results from a Questionnaire about Processing Electric Vehicles and Handling High-Voltage Batteries

With the transition to clean energy the demand for electric vehicles in the United States is rapidly growing. As demand continues to rise in the next couple of decades, sourcing materials (e.g., lithium, nickel, cobalt, graphite, etc.) to put into new batteries for electric vehicles will be critical. The U.S. does not have significant reserves of most of these materials and relies heavily on foreign countries. The lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles are large and contain substantial amounts of critical materials, therefore, they are a promising source of materials for new batteries. Recycling electric vehicle batteries when they reach their end-of-life will enable the United States to generate a domestic supply of materials needed for future batteries. [1-3] The auto recycling industry is the largest collective owner of end-of-life vehicles in the U.S. and will be the primary handlers of battery-powered vehicles (i.e., hybrid or electric) when they reach the end of their useful life. In an effort to better understand how the auto recycling industry currently handles battery-powered vehicles and their high-voltage batteries, DOE’s ReCell Center for Advanced Battery Recycling (ReCell) developed a questionnaire and distributed it to various trade organizations in the automotive recycling industry.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Optimized NiTe 2 /Ni back contacts via chemical deposition for high performance CdTe solar cells

The development of efficient and stable back contacts remains a major challenge in achieving high performance and long-term stability of CdTe thin-film solar cells. Here, this work revisits the formation of NiTe 2 by chemical bath deposition (CBD) as a back contact for CdTe devices. An optimized CBD recipe, based on high-purity precursors and the addition of copper chloride directly into the bath, was developed and applied to fabricate Cu-doped CdTe solar cells. A modified Cu-free methodology was also applied to Group V doped absorbers. The process included pinhole filling, ion milling, CBD, annealing, and sputtering to form a low-barrier back contact. Devices fabricated using this method achieved consistent open-circuit voltages (V oc ) above 800 mV and fill factors (FF) exceeding 70%. The best Cu-doped devices reached power conversion efficiencies (PCE) above 18 %, and preliminary results with Group V-doped material demonstrated compatibility of the method with high-efficiency, state-of-the-art CdTe devices. This study shows that NiTe 2 /Ni back contacts, formed via an optimized chemical process followed by sputtering of Ni, represent a promising pathway for achieving low-barrier and potentially stable back contacts in modern CdTe photovoltaics.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

AstroPix: A pixelated HVCMOS sensor for space-based gamma-ray measurement

A next-generation medium-energy gamma-ray telescope targeting the MeV range would address open questions in astrophysics regarding how extreme conditions accelerate cosmic-ray particles, produce relativistic jet outflows, and more. One concept, AMEGO-X, relies upon the mission-enabling CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor silicon chip AstroPix. AstroPix is designed for space-based use, featuring low noise, low power consumption, and high scalability. Desired performance of the device include an energy resolution of 5 keV (or 10% FWHM) at 122 keV and a dynamic range per-pixel of 25–700 keV, enabled by the addition of a high-voltage bias to each pixel which supports a depletion depth of 500 μ m. This work reports on the status of the AstroPix development process with emphasis on the current version under test, version three (v3), and highlights of version two (v2). Version 3 achieves energy resolution of 10.4 ± 3.2% at 59.5 keV and 94 ± 6 μ m depletion in a low-resistivity test silicon substrate.

Astrophysics instrumentation↗

DOE OSTI2025

Mechanistic Insights into the Surface Instabilities of TiNb 2 O 7, a High‐Power Li‐Ion Anode

TiNb 2 O 7 (TNO) is a promising Li-ion battery anode for high-power applications, such as implantable medical devices and heavy-duty equipment. Hailed as being safe due to its elevated operating potential near 1.6 V, TNO has long been assumed to be highly stable in the carbonate-based electrolytes used in Li-ion batteries. Herein, all mechanisms occurring at the surface of both TNO and Nd-doped TNO are identified, and both materials in fact show significant gassing. CO 2 is even released at open circuit conditions, demonstrating the poor chemical stability of the material in the electrolyte even prior to battery operation. Such extreme instability is a critical safety concern. In addition, it was found that Ti dissolves from the surface of TNO particles at low voltage (below 1.4 V vs Li), and in fact deposits on the counter electrode. Ti further inside TNO particles then diffuses to the Ti-poor surface during discharge. Partial carbon-coating as a mitigating measure has also been tested and found to exacerbate these processes. The findings identify novel reactions occurring within TNO, and clearly highlight the need to stabilize the surfaces of TNO in order to prevent such aggressive deterioration at the surface of the particles.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Uniform Field Electrode Generator

SAND2025-03788O Uniform Field Electrode Generator is a user-friendly tool designed to create uniform electric field electrodes, essential for high voltage applications. By generating electrodes with precise dimensions, it ensures a consistent electric field across their surfaces. This software is particularly beneficial for researchers and engineers working on projects like closing switches and studying power flow in advanced systems, such as the Z machine. Its unique approach simplifies the design process, making it accessible for users without technical expertise, while enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of their electrical applications. Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration under contract DE-NA0003525.

Mason, Tyler [Sandia National Lab. (SNL-CA), Liver↗