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Robotic vision techniques for space operations
Automation and robotics for space applications are being pursued for increased productivity, enhanced reliability, increased flexibility, higher safety, and for the automation of time-consuming tasks and those activities which are beyond the capacity of the crew. One of the key functional elements of an automated robotic system is sensing and perception. As the robotics era dawns in space, vision systems will be required to provide the key sensory data needed for multifaceted intelligent operations. In general, the three-dimensional scene/object description, along with location, orientation, and motion parameters will be needed. In space, the absence of diffused lighting due to a lack of atmosphere gives rise to: (a) high dynamic range (10(exp 8)) of scattered sunlight intensities, resulting in very high contrast between shadowed and specular portions of the scene; (b) intense specular reflections causing target/scene bloom; and (c) loss of portions of the image due to shadowing and presence of stars, Earth, Moon, and other space objects in the scene. In this work, developments for combating the adverse effects described earlier and for enhancing scene definition are discussed. Both active and passive sensors are used. The algorithm for selecting appropriate wavelength, polarization, look angle of vision sensors is based on environmental factors as well as the properties of the target/scene which are to be perceived. The environment is characterized on the basis of sunlight and other illumination incident on the target/scene and the temperature profiles estimated on the basis of the incident illumination. The unknown geometrical and physical parameters are then derived from the fusion of the active and passive microwave, infrared, laser, and optical data.
Development of Sample Verification System for Sample Return Missions
This paper describes the development of a proof of-concept sample verification system (SVS) for in-situ mass measurement of planetary rock and soil sample in future robotic sample return missions. Our proof-of-concept SVS device contains a 10 cm diameter pressure sensitive elastic membrane placed at the bottom of a sample canister. The membrane deforms under the weight of accumulating planetary sample. The membrane is positioned in proximity to an opposing substrate with a narrow gap. The deformation of the membrane makes the gap to be narrower, resulting in increased capacitance between the two nearly parallel plates. Capacitance readout circuitry on a nearby printed circuit board (PCB) transmits data via a low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) interface. The fabricated SVS proof-of-concept device has successfully demonstrated approximately 1pF/gram capacitance change
Robotic vision technology and algorithms for space applications
The vision data requirements for various automation and robotics applications for the Space Station are discussed. The advanced systems technology involved with robotic sensing for perception is reviewed, noting the unique requirements of vision systems in space. Three areas of algorithm development are discussed: shape extraction based on illumination, shape extraction by sensor fusion, and generalized image point correspondence. Possibilities for future developments in robotic vision technology are considered.
Tactile Sensing for Dexterous Robotic Hands
Robotic systems will be used as precursors to human exploration to explore the solar system and expand our knowledge of planetary surfaces. Robotic systems will also be used to build habitats and infrastructure required for human presence in space and on other planetary surfaces . Such robots will require a high level of intelligence and automation. The ability to flexibly manipulate their physical environment is one characteristic that makes humans so effective at these building and exploring tasks . The development of a generic autonomous grasp ing capability will greatly enhance the efficiency and ability of robotics to build, maintain and explore. To tele-operate a robot over vast distances of space, with long communication delays, has proven to be troublesome. Having an autonomous grasping capability that can react in real-time to disturbances or adapt to generic objects, without operator intervention, will reduce the probability of mishandled tools and samples and reduce the number of re-grasp attempts due to dropping. One aspect that separates humans from machines is a rich sensor set. We have the ability to feel objects and respond to forces and textures. The development of touch or tactile sensors for use on a robot that emulates human skin and nerves is the basis for this discussion. We will discuss the use of new piezo-electric and resistive materials that have emerged on the market with the intention of developing a touch sensitive sensor. With viable tacti le sensors we will be one step closer to developing an autonomous grasping capability.
Development of techniques required for the application of a laser to three dimensional visual sensing
The ongoing vision research at the Center for Intelligent Robotic Systems for Space Exploration (CIRSSE) is directed toward identifying and addressing the relevant issues involved in applying visual sensing to space assembly tasks. A considerable amount of effort has been devoted to passive sensing techniques such as using multiple cameras to identify objects in a scene. To compliment the capabilities of the passive visual system in the CIRSSE robotics testbed, research is being conducted in active sensing techniques. This report is description of the research associated with the testbed's laser scanner and its application as an active sensing device. The report is comprised of five major topics. First is a brief description of the CIRSSE visual system and a summary of the active sensing research that has been conducted up to this point. Second, some of the methods currently used to calibrate CIRSSE's laser scanner are described as well as an appraisal of the effectiveness of these methods. Third, is a discussion of how the laser scanner can be employed in concert with a camera to provide a three dimensional point estimation capability. Fourth, there is a description of methods that can be used to detect the presence of the laser beam in a cluttered camera image. Finally, there is a summary of the current state of this research and a description of research planned for the future.
Bio-inspired Computing for Robots
Living creatures may provide algorithms to enable active sensing/control systems in robots. Active sensing could enable planetary rovers to feel their way in unknown environments. The surface of Jupiter's moon Europa consists of fractured ice over a liquid sea that may contain microbes similar to those on Earth. To explore such extreme environments, NASA needs robots that autonomously survive, navigate, and gather scientific data. They will be too far away for guidance from Earth. They must sense their environment and control their own movements to avoid obstacles or investigate a science opportunity. To meet this challenge, CICT's Information Technology Strategic Research (ITSR) Project is funding neurobiologists at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and selected universities to search for biologically inspired algorithms that enable robust active sensing and control for exploratory robots. Sources for these algorithms are living creatures, including rats and electric fish.
Geometric reasoning
Cognitive robot systems are ones in which sensing and representation occur, from which task plans and tactics are determined. Such a robot system accomplishes a task after being told what to do, but determines for itself how to do it. Cognition is required when the work environment is uncontrolled, when contingencies are prevalent, or when task complexity is large; it is useful in any robotic mission. A number of distinguishing features can be associated with cognitive robotics, and one emphasized here is the role of artificial intelligence in knowledge representation and in planning. While space telerobotics may elude some of the problems driving cognitive robotics, it shares many of the same demands, and it can be assumed that capabilities developed for cognitive robotics can be employed advantageously for telerobotics in general. The top level problem is task planning, and it is appropriate to introduce a hierarchical view of control. Presented with certain mission objectives, the system must generate plans (typically) at the strategic, tactical, and reflexive levels. The structure by which knowledge is used to construct and update these plans endows the system with its cognitive attributes, and with the ability to deal with contingencies, changes, unknowns, and so on. Issues of representation and reasoning which are absolutely fundamental to robot manipulation, decisions based upon geometry, are discussed here, not AI task planning per se.
Execution monitoring for a mobile robot system
Due to sensor errors, uncertainty, incomplete knowledge, and a dynamic world, robot plans will not always be executed exactly as planned. This paper describes an implemented robot planning system that enhances the traditional sense-think-act cycle in ways that allow the robot system monitor its behavior and react in emergencies in real-time. A proposal on how robot systems can completely break away from the traditional three-step cycle is also made.
Autonomous-Control Concept For Instrument Pointing System
Integrated payload articulation and identification system (IPAIDS) is conceptual system to control aiming of instruments aboard spacecraft of proposed Earth Observation System (EOS). Principal features of concept include advanced control strategies intended to assure robustness of performance over wide range of uncertainties in characteristics of spacecraft and instrument system. Intended originally for application to spacecraft system, has potential utility on Earth for automatic control of autonomous (robotic) vehicles or of remote sensing systems.
Integration of a sensor based multiple robot environment for space applications: The Johnson Space Center Teleoperator Branch Robotics Laboratory
An integrated operating environment was designed to incorporate three general purpose robots, sensors, and end effectors, including Force/Torque Sensors, Tactile Array sensors, Tactile force sensors, and Force-sensing grippers. The design and implementation of: (1) the teleoperation of a general purpose PUMA robot; (2) an integrated sensor hardware/software system; (3) the force-sensing gripper control; (4) the host computer system for dual Robotic Research arms; and (5) the Ethernet integration are described.
Remote systems development
Potential space missions of the nineties and the next century require that we look at the broad category of remote systems as an important means to achieve cost-effective operations, exploration and colonization objectives. This paper addresses such missions, which can use remote systems technology as the basis for identifying required capabilities which must be provided. The relationship of the space-based tasks to similar tasks required for terrestrial applications is discussed. The development status of the required technology is assessed and major issues which must be addressed to meet future requirements are identified. This includes the proper mix of humans and machines, from pure teleoperation to full autonomy; the degree of worksite compatibility for a robotic system; and the required design parameters, such as degrees-of-freedom. Methods for resolution are discussed including analysis, graphical simulation and the use of laboratory test beds. Grumman experience in the application of these techniques to a variety of design issues are presented utilizing the Telerobotics Development Laboratory which includes a 17-DOF robot system, a variety of sensing elements, Deneb/IRIS graphics workstations and control stations. The use of task/worksite mockups, remote system development test beds and graphical analysis are discussed with examples of typical results such as estimates of task times, task feasibility and resulting recommendations for design changes. The relationship of this experience and lessons-learned to future development of remote systems is also discussed.
Free-Flight Terrestrial Rocket Lander Demonstration for NASA's Autonomous Landing and Hazard Avoidance Technology (ALHAT) System
The Autonomous Landing Hazard Avoidance Technology (ALHAT) Project is chartered to develop and mature to a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of six an autonomous system combining guidance, navigation and control with terrain sensing and recognition functions for crewed, cargo, and robotic planetary landing vehicles. The ALHAT System must be capable of identifying and avoiding surface hazards to enable a safe and accurate landing to within tens of meters of designated and certified landing sites anywhere on a planetary surface under any lighting conditions. Since its inception in 2006, the ALHAT Project has executed four field test campaigns to characterize and mature sensors and algorithms that support real-time hazard detection and global/local precision navigation for planetary landings. The driving objective for Government Fiscal Year 2012 (GFY2012) is to successfully demonstrate autonomous, real-time, closed loop operation of the ALHAT system in a realistic free flight scenario on Earth using the Morpheus lander developed at the Johnson Space Center (JSC). This goal represents an aggressive target consistent with a lean engineering culture of rapid prototyping and development. This culture is characterized by prioritizing early implementation to gain practical lessons learned and then building on this knowledge with subsequent prototyping design cycles of increasing complexity culminating in the implementation of the baseline design. This paper provides an overview of the ALHAT/Morpheus flight demonstration activities in GFY2012, including accomplishments, current status, results, and lessons learned. The ALHAT/Morpheus effort is also described in the context of a technology path in support of future crewed and robotic planetary exploration missions based upon the core sensing functions of the ALHAT system: Terrain Relative Navigation (TRN), Hazard Detection and Avoidance (HDA), and Hazard Relative Navigation (HRN).
Process Algebra Approach for Action Recognition in the Maritime Domain
The maritime environment poses a number of challenges for autonomous operation of surface boats. Among these challenges are the highly dynamic nature of the environment, the onboard sensing and reasoning requirements for obeying the navigational rules of the road, and the need for robust day/night hazard detection and avoidance. Development of full mission level autonomy entails addressing these challenges, coupled with inference of the tactical and strategic intent of possibly adversarial vehicles in the surrounding environment. This paper introduces PACIFIC (Process Algebra Capture of Intent From Information Content), an onboard system based on formal process algebras that is capable of extracting actions/activities from sensory inputs and reasoning within a mission context to ensure proper responses. PACIFIC is part of the Behavior Engine in CARACaS (Cognitive Architecture for Robotic Agent Command and Sensing), a system that is currently running on a number of U.S. Navy unmanned surface and underwater vehicles. Results from a series of experimental studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of the system are also presented.
A Visual Analytics Approach to Debugging Cooperative, Autonomous Multi-Robot Systems’ Worldviews
Autonomous multi-robot systems, where a team of robots shares information to perform tasks that are beyond an individual robot’s abilities, hold great promise for a number of applications, such as planetary exploration missions. Each robot in a multi- robot system autonomously schedules which robots should perform a given task and when, using its worldview–the robot’s internal representation of its belief about the environment and other robots’ states. A key problem for operators is that robots’ worldviews can fall out of sync (often due to weak communication links), leading to desynchronization of the robots’ scheduling decisions and inconsistent emergent behavior (e.g., tasks not performed, or performed by multiple robots). Operators face the time-consuming and difficult task of making sense of the robots’ scheduling decisions, detecting de-synchronizations, and pinpointing their cause by comparing every robot’s worldview. To address these challenges, we introduce MOSAIC Viewer, a visual analytics system that helps operators (i) make sense of the robots’ schedules and (ii) detect and conduct a root cause analysis of the robots’ desynchronized worldviews. Over a year-long partnership with roboticists at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a formative study was performed to identify the necessary system design requirements, which supports the design of the system. A qualitative study with 12 roboticists reveals that MOSAIC Viewer is faster- and easier-to-use than the users’ current approaches, and it allows them to stitch low-level details to formulate a high-level understanding of the robots’ schedules and detect and pin-point the cause of desynchronized worldviews.
ALHAT: Autonomous Landing and Hazard Avoidance Technology
The ALHAT project was chartered by NASA HQ in 2006 to develop and mature to TRL 6 an autonomous lunar landing GN&C and sensing system for crewed, cargo, and robotic planetary landing vehicles. The multi-center ALHAT team was tasked with providing a system capable of identifying and avoiding surface hazards in real time to enable safe precision landing to within tens of meters of a designated planetary landing site under any lighting conditions.
Real-Time Hazard Detection and Avoidance Demonstration for a Planetary Lander
The Autonomous Landing Hazard Avoidance Technology (ALHAT) Project is chartered to develop and mature to a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of six an autonomous system combining guidance, navigation and control with terrain sensing and recognition functions for crewed, cargo, and robotic planetary landing vehicles. In addition to precision landing close to a pre-mission defined landing location, the ALHAT System must be capable of autonomously identifying and avoiding surface hazards in real-time to enable a safe landing under any lighting conditions. This paper provides an overview of the recent results of the ALHAT closed loop hazard detection and avoidance flight demonstrations on the Morpheus Vertical Testbed (VTB) at the Kennedy Space Center, including results and lessons learned. This effort is also described in the context of a technology path in support of future crewed and robotic planetary exploration missions based upon the core sensing functions of the ALHAT system: Terrain Relative Navigation (TRN), Hazard Detection and Avoidance (HDA), and Hazard Relative Navigation (HRN).
Tool actuation and force feedback on robot-assisted microsurgery system
An input control device with force sensors is configured to sense hand movements of a surgeon performing a robot-assisted microsurgery. The sensed hand movements actuate a mechanically decoupled robot manipulator. A microsurgical manipulator, attached to the robot manipulator, is activated to move small objects and perform microsurgical tasks. A force-feedback element coupled to the robot manipulator and the input control device provides the input control device with an amplified sense of touch in the microsurgical manipulator.