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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Real-Time Simulation of Solid Oxide Electrolyzers (SOEC) for Dynamic Operability Improvement and Cyber-Physical System Development

As more intermittent-renewable generations are being added to the power grid, solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOEC) must enhance their rapid load transition capabilities to load follow and support grid resilience. At NETL, we developed real-time SOEC models to research SOEC transients during load step changes. The gained insights can be useful for dynamic operability improvement. These real-time SOEC models also established the basis for cyber-physical SOEC hybrid energy systems. (Virtual presentation to the 2025 MILLENNIUM CLEAN and SUSTAINABLE POWER workshop, University of Genoa, Italy)

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Water Electrolyzers and Fuel Cells Supply Chain: Supply Chain Deep Dive Assessment

The report “America’s Strategy to Secure the Supply Chain for a Robust Clean Energy Transition” lays out the challenges and opportunities faced by the United States in the energy supply chain as well as the federal government plans to address these challenges and opportunities. It is accompanied by several issue-specific deep dive assessments, including this one, in response to Executive Order 14017 “America’s Supply Chains,” which directs the Secretary of Energy to submit a report on supply chains for the energy sector industrial base. The Executive Order is helping the federal government to build more secure and diverse U.S. supply chains, including energy supply chains. This report is one of a series that supports the analysis of the energy industrial base called for in Executive Order 14017 on America’s supply chains (Exec. Order No. 14017, 2021). Specifically, it provides a review of the supply chain for water electrolyzers and fuel cells with a focus on polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer cells (PEMEC), polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), solid oxide electrolyzer cells (SOEC), and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). Water electrolysis and fuel cells are a nascent industry with little prior information related to supply chain needs and constraints. This report provides a preliminary assessment; further industry peer review and revisions are expected.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2026

Automation of Solid Oxyde Electrolyzer Cell (SOEC) & Stack Assembly

The work performed under this agreement before the No/Go decision amounted to the following: 1. Preliminary manufacturing requirements defined by business sensitivity, baseline processes & risk assessment; 2. Process & materials development, in-line gauge exploration, and preliminary automation work used to reduce risk & further refine equipment specifications; 3. “Request for Quote” issued to multiple suppliers for major equipment; 4. Application specific equipment, hardware, and fixturing will be more beneficial to fabricate inhouse; 5.Current proposals & estimates meet cycle time, capital spend, & direct labor; space is on target but requires awareness; 6. Team will continue to explore opportunities to reduce risk (dry time, traceability); 7. Go / No-Go, Purchase Orders, Equipment build & commissioning next All other future task were not completed because during the Go /No-Go decision it was confirmed this project was a "No-Go" and did not proceed past BP1; these included the following: 1. Preliminary manufacturing requirements defined by business sensitivity, baseline processes & risk assessment; 2. Process & materials development, in-line gauge exploration, and preliminary automation work used to reduce risk & further refine equipment specifications; 3. “Request for Quote” issued to multiple suppliers for major equipment; 4. Application specific equipment, hardware, and fixturing will be more beneficial to fabricate inhouse; 5. Current proposals & estimates meet cycle time, capital spend, & direct labor; space is on target but requires awareness; 6. Team will continue to explore opportunities to reduce risk (dry time, traceability) In final preparation of the termination of the Automation of Solid Oxyde Electrolyzer Cell (SOEC) & Stack Assembly, Cummins has purchased no equipment with government funds, and there is no government-owned property in Cummins possession related to this project. Minimal labor and travel were completed and paid. This acts as the Final technical report and concludes our business with DOE on this grant.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Impact of Sr-Containing Secondary Phases on Oxide Conductivity in Solid-Oxide Electrolyzer Cells

Solid-oxide electrolyzer cells (SOECs) based on a yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) oxide electrolyte produce hydrogen from water with the assistance of excess thermal energy; however, Sr diffusion within the Gd-doped CeO 2 (GDC) barrier layer during processing or operation can lead to the formation of unwanted secondary phases such as SrO and SrZrO 3 . Here, to establish and compare the degree of impact of these phases on SOEC performance, we conduct first-principles calculations to study their bulk oxide conductivities and compare them to that of the YSZ electrolyte. We find that SrO has a low conductivity arising from the poor mobility and low concentration of mobile oxygen vacancies, and its presence in SOECs should therefore be avoided. SrZrO 3 also has a lower oxide conductivity than YSZ; however, this discrepancy is primarily due to lower vacancy concentrations rather than low mobility. We find that sufficient levels of Y-doping on the Zr site can increase oxygen vacancy concentrations in SrZrO 3 to achieve an oxide ionic conductivity on par with that of YSZ, thereby mitigating any potential deleterious effect on transport performance. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy confirms that Y is the most common minority element present in SrZrO 3 forming near the GDC–YSZ interface, alleviating concerns regarding the impact of SrZrO 3 on device performance. These results from our combined computational–experimental analysis can inform future engineering strategies designed to limit the detrimental effects of Sr-induced secondary phase formation on SOEC performance.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2023

Carbon dioxide reduction in solid oxide electrolyzer cells using transition metals infiltrated into Gd 0.1 Ce 0.9 O 1.95 (GDC10) scaffolds

Here, this study reports the catalytic activity of transition metal electrocatalysts (Co, Ni, and Cu) incorporated into Gd 0.1 Ce 0.9 O 1.95 (GDC10) cathodes for the electroreduction of CO 2 in solid oxide electrolyzer cells (SOECs). CO 2 electroreduction performance of cells having porous and non-infiltrated GDC10 cathodes was compared with the performance of cells containing transition metal electrocatalysts infiltrated into porous GDC10 cathodes at 750, 800, and 850°C. Results showed that cells with Co infiltrated cathodes had the best catalytic activity towards CO 2 electroreduction. Furthermore, these cells displayed good stability towards CO electroreduction, having a faradaic efficiency value close to 100% with insignificant voltage increase when tested for 48h at 750 and 850°C under the current densities of 0.2, and 0.4Acm -2 , respectively.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Conductivity and Transference Number Determination Protocols for Solid Oxide Cell Materials

To standardize materials and component characterization for next generation hydrogen production and energy generation solid oxide cell (SOC) technologies, test protocols are being established to facilitate comparison across the numerous laboratories and research institutions where SOC development for application in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and solid oxide electrolyzes cells (SOEC) is conducted. This paper proposes guiding protocols for fundamental electrical properties characterization of SOC materials, including temperature- and oxygen partial pressure (pO 2 )-dependent conductivity measurements, and use of the electromotive force for determining the transference numbers, or contributions of each charge carrier (i.e., ions and electrons), to the total conductivity. The protocol for Archimedes density measurements is also provided as an integral technique to both of these methods.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Techno-Economic Analysis of Synthetic Fuels Pathways Integrated with Light Water Reactors

The purpose of this work is to identify, model, perform techno-economic analysis, and compare two possible synfuel production routes utilizing CO 2 as the feedstock. Heat from an LWR nuclear plant is integrated wherever possible to positively affect the economics of the LWR by converting power to fuels during times of low grid electricity demand. Process and economic modeling for a conceptual synfuel production plant co-located (or in near proximity) with an LWR is presented, including the cost of CO 2 captured from an ethanol plant, compressed, and transported to the LWR hybrid plant, co-electrolysis of the CO 2 with water in a solid oxide electrolyzing cell (SOEC) system to produce syngas, and thermocatalytic conversion of the syngas to transportation fuel. The hybrid LWR/synfuels plant is assumed to be located within 50–150 miles of an ethanol plant (e.g., located in the midwest region of the United States). Performance and nth-plant economics for the co-electrolysis-based processes are evaluated and compared with biomass-gasification-based technology for the synfuel routes considered. Sensitivity analysis around the price of CO 2 and electricity, two of the major cost drivers, is presented for each case. Consideration of a carbon credit is also included in the sensitivity analysis.

10 SYNTHETIC FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Sr Permeation in CeO 2 -Based Barrier Layers for Solid-Oxide Electrolyzer Cells

Solid-oxide electrolyzer cells (SOECs) convert steam to hydrogen efficiently at high temperatures. However, during operation, the diffusion of cations or impurities through the cells due to electrode degradation can cause unwanted secondary phases to form, which may degrade device performance. Here, in this study, we use atomistic and mesoscale simulations coupled with experimental analysis to study the diffusion of Sr through the Gd-doped CeO 2 (GDC) barrier layer used to protect the yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolyte in SOECs. From our atomistic calculations, we find Sr diffusion to be negligibly slow in bulk GDC; however, surface diffusion is much more favorable. Subsequent mesoscale simulations show that Sr diffusion is activated when the porosity of GDC exceeds ∼10% and significantly exceeds diffusion in bulk and grain boundary regions. We also find that SrO-based species can accumulate at GDC surfaces; however, SrO aggregation and coarsening will be limited by the large lattice mismatch between GDC and SrO. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and electron diffraction confirm that Sr can accumulate within GDC pores and form disperse Sr-containing secondary phases. Altogether, Sr diffusion in dense GDC is unlikely to give rise to thick SrO layers, which would severely limit device performance. The formation of Sr-containing secondary phases can largely be avoided by restricting the porosity of the GDC layer as much as possible.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Modeling Electrokinetics of Oxygen Electrodes in Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cells

A microscale model is presented in this study to simulate electrode kinetics of the oxygen electrode in a solid oxide electrolyzer cell (SOEC). Two mixed ionic/electronic conducting structures are examined for the oxygen producing electrode in this work: single layer porous lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite (LSCF), and bilayer LSCF/SCT (strontium cobalt tantalum oxide) structures. A yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolyte separates the hydrogen and oxygen electrodes, as well as a gadolinium doped-ceria (GDC) buffer layer on the oxygen electrode side. Electrochemical reactions occurring at the two-phase boundaries (2PBs) and three-phase boundaries (3PBs) of single-layer LSCF and bilayer LSCF/SCT oxygen electrodes are modeled under various SOEC voltages with lattice oxygen stoichiometry as the key output. The results reveal that there exists a competition in electrode kinetics between 2PBs and 3PBs, but 3PBs are the primary reactive sites for single-layer LSCF oxygen electrode under high voltages. These locations experience the greatest oxygen stoichiometry variations and are therefore the most likely locations for dimensional changes. By applying an active SCT layer over LSCF, the 2PBs become activated to compete with the 3PBs, thus alleviating oxygen stoichiometry variations and reducing the likelihood of dimensional change. This strategy could reduce lattice structural expansion, proving to be valuable for electrode-electrolyte delamination prevention and will be the focus of future work.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2020

Techno-Economic Analysis of Synthetic Fuels Pathways Integrated with Light Water Reactors

The purpose of this work is to identify, model, and compare two possible synfuel production routes utilizing CO 2 as the feedstock. Heat from an LWR nuclear plant is integrated wherever possible as a means to positively affect the economics of the LWR. Process and economic modeling for a conceptual synfuel production plant co-located (or in near proximity) with an LWR is presented, including the cost of CO 2 captured from an ethanol plant, compressed, and transported to the LWR hybrid plant, co-electrolysis of the CO 2 with water in a solid oxide electrolyzing cell (SOEC) system to produce syngas, and thermo-catalytic conversion of the syngas to transportation fuel. The hybrid LWR/synfuels plant is assumed to be located within 50-150 miles of an ethanol plant, e.g., located in the Midwest region of the United States. Performance and nth plant economics for the co-electrolysis-based processes are evaluated and compared with biomass-gasification-based technology for the synfuel routes considered. Sensitivity analysis around the price of CO 2 and electricity, two of the major cost drivers, is presented for each case. Consideration of a carbon credit is also included in the sensitivity analysis.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2022

Novel Modular Electrocatalytic Processing for Simultaneous Conversion of Carbon Dioxide and Wet Shale Gas into Valuable Products (Final Report)

This report examines solid oxide electrolyzer cell (SOEC) technology as an alternative process for the manufacture of carbon monoxide (CO) and the separation of ethane (C 2 H 6 ) from wet natural gas (WNG). SOEC cathodes for the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) to CO and SOEC anodes for the selective electrochemical oxidation of C 2 H 6 to ethylene (C 2 H 4 ) are described and presented. Lifecycle and techno-economic analyses (LCA and TEA) utilizing SOEC technology for the production of CO are also reported.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2023

Novel Modular Electrocatalytic Processing for Simultaneous Conversion of Carbon Dioxide and Wet Shale Gas into Valuable Products

This report examines solid oxide electrolyzer cell (SOEC) technology as an alternative process for the manufacture of carbon monoxide (CO) and the separation of ethane (C 2 H 6 ) from wet natural gas (WNG). SOEC cathodes for the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) to CO and SOEC anodes for the selective electrochemical oxidation of C 2 H 6 to ethylene (C 2 H 4 ) are described and presented. Lifecycle and techno-economic analyses (LCA and TEA) utilizing SOEC technology for the production of CO are also reported.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Scalable High-H 2 Flux, Robust Thin Film Solid Oxide Electrolyzer

This project was aimed at the development of proton-conducting SOEC (P-SOEC) technology that has the potential to meet key DOE H 2 production targets. A decreased proton resistance of the electrolyte and Faradaic efficiency improvements were sought to increase the fraction of consumed electrolysis power that is used to actually generate H 2 , while simultaneously decreasing cost dramatically. Moreover, the development project was intended to yield maximum durability through the use of a steam protective layer. Furthermore, sputtering was used to overcome processing challenges that have hampered P-SOEC development, while the low-temperature operation goal of 500 °C was expected to aid in mitigating thermally activated long-term degradation. The approach to high-performance, lower-temperature SOECs leveraged our existing SOFC Ni-cermet anode support and extensive thin-film sputtering layer-deposition experience. Rather than an all-in-one, reversible fuel cell approach which has many unacceptable tradeoffs, we focused on the many benefits to hydrogen generating SOECs, including the existence of synergies for reduced manufacturing costs (e.g., SOECs and SOFCs share supporting layers and overall manufacturing processing). The end result of this project was expected to increase current performance at 500 °C from approximately 0.8 A/cm 2 (at 60% Faradaic efficiency) at 1.4 V to > 1 A/cm 2 (at > 95% Faradaic efficiency) with a > 40% reduction in system cost and to enable operation of P-SOECs in steam contents >> 20% for a goal of a > 40,000 hours lifetime. To enable 500 °C operation in a very high steam atmosphere (> 20%), we proposed the use of a sputtered dense thin film (~0.1-1 µm thick) of high-stability Ba(Zr,Y)O 3 (BZY) to protect the Ba(Ce,Zr,Y,Yb)O 3 (BCZYYb) electrolyte. The BZCYYb, in turn, blocks the hole conductivity of the BZY to boost Faradaic efficiency. As FE increases, more of the consumed electricity is used in electrolysis to generate H 2 , rather than being shunted. Additionally, as cell resistance decreases, the voltage required to maintain current decreases, as well as the power required to generate the same amount of H 2 . With the proposed enhancements, these two factors result in the final 46% decrease in power needed to run the system. Likewise, a production rate of 50,000 kg H 2 /day will require 55% less active area, such that a system will need only 650 cells for an 80 cm 2 active area instead of ~1,440. Taking the 2016 DOE projected current cost and modifying the electricity cost and linearly scaling the other costs (except thermal feedstock) based on the cell area improvement, results in a 44% decrease in lifetime system cost, or a decrease from $\$$4.95/kg H 2 to $\$$2.75/kg H 2 . This is well below the 2018 DOE target of $\$$4/kg H 2 . The results from this project showed that we can create a P-SOEC with enhanced steam stability using two different electrolytes (i.e., one on top of the other) and achieve sufficiently low area specific resistance (ASR) to achieve the target performance. Unfortunately, due to extended delays at the beginning of the project and related supply chain and equipment access issues, we were not able to completely show increased Faradaic efficiency for the P-SOEC and therefore were unable to demonstrate the full proof of concept within the first budget period budget. While there are still challenges that remain to be solved, significant progress was made during this project and the concept still has merit that warrants further development.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2022

Laser 3D printing of highly compacted protonic ceramic electrolyzer stack

Solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) for H 2 production is a core technology for H2@scale. However, its conventional manufacturing methods adapted from the manufacture of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) need high cost, especially for small-volume production. The emerging laser 3D printing (L3DP) technology with computer-aided 3D printing and computer-controlled laser processing can fulfill layer-by-layer digital shaping and rapid in-situ consolidating feedstock into complicated geometries. L3DP, a promising additive manufacturing (AM) technology, has achieved significant success in manufacturing plastic and metal parts, which is currently attracting considerable attention for the cost-effective, rapid, and flexible manufacturing of heterogeneous multilayered ceramic devices (e.g., SOECs, SOFCs, and solid-state batteries). It is believed that the L3DP can integrate the advantages of selective consolidation of heterogeneous layers, accurate control of layer microstructures, high processing heat efficiency, high processing speed, high stack compactness, high stack design flexibility, and low stack sealing area for cost-effective, rapid, and flexible manufacturing of SOECs to meet DOE’s electrolyzer target.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effect of high scandium doping in barium zirconate on nickel diffusion and performance of proton-conducting solid oxide electrolyzer cells

Proton-conducting solid oxide electrolyzer cells (p-SOECs) are emerging but promising technologies for hydrogen production. However, due to the lack of a robust electrolyte, p-SOECs struggle simultaneously to display high performance, Faradaic efficiency, and durability. Motivated by its high proton concentrations and stability as a barium zirconate, we have investigated BaZr 0.6 Sc 0.4 O 3-δ (BZSc40) as a potential next-generation p-SOEC electrolyte. Here, we found elevated levels of NiO diffusion through BZSc40 electrolytes during high-temperature sintering, attributed to the large oxygen vacancy concentrations present in BZSc40, as revealed by first-principle computational results. Controlling NiO diffusion is critical, as it can facilitate densification and grain size growth, but it may also detrimentally impact performance by causing electronic leakage. By optimizing sintering temperature when fabricating BZSc40 cells, we successfully controlled NiO diffusion, achieving sufficient electrolyte densification along with high performance and Faradaic efficiency. BZSc40 cells reached −0.99 A/cm 2 at 1.3 V and 600 °C and exhibited enhanced durability with a 3.37 mV/kh degradation rate at −0.8 A/cm 2 over a 200-h testing period. BZSc40 electrolytes demonstrated superior performance over BaZr 0.8 Y 0.2 O 3-δ (BZY20). In addition to elevated current densities and grain sizes, BZSc40 cells achieved Faradaic efficiencies of 76 % compared to 54 % for BZY20 at −0.2 A/cm 2 and 600 °C. This work lays the foundation for BZSc40 as a potential electrolyte due to its advantages over BZY20 while demonstrating the significance of controlling NiO diffusion when fabricating p-SOECs.

Electrolyzer↗
DOE OSTI2024

Hydrogen and its Vital Role in a Clean Energy Future

Large-scale, low -cost hydrogen production can enable an economically competitive, secure, and environmentally beneficial future energy system across multiple sectors. Furthermore, clean hydrogen can address specific sectors that are hard to decarbonize (e.g., heavy-duty trucking, load-following electricity, iron, steel, and cement) and can help the U.S. meet the net zero carbon goal by 2050. To achieve this goal, tens of millions of metric tons of clean, reliable, and affordable hydrogen will be needed annually1. In 2021, the Hydrogen Energy Earthshot was launched, and its goal is to reduce the cost of clean hydrogen to $1 per $1 kilogram in 1 decade (1 1 1) 2. One very promising pathway for large-scale hydrogen production is water splitting. Water splitting technologies range from commercial technologies such as electrolyzers to approaches that are at a much earlier stage of development, such as photoelectrochemical (PEC) and thermochemical (TCH) processes. All these water splitting pathways offer diverse benefits in energy storage, grid services, and cross-sector emissions reductions while taking advantage of the diverse domestic resources. However, critical materials-, component- and system-level challenges must be addressed to improve efficiency and durability and reduce cost. To address these barriers and move these promising and high impact technologies forward, the HydroGEN Advanced Water Splitting Materials (AWSM) and the H2 from the Next-generation of Electrolyzers of Water (H2NEW) consortia were formed and supported by the Department of Energy (DOE) EERE Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office (HFTO). HydroGEN (https://www.energy.gov/eere/h2awsm/) consortium, established in 2016, is an Energy Materials Network (EMN) that aims to accelerate the materials R&D of low technology readiness level (TRL) advanced water splitting (AWS) technologies. The consortium comprises five core national laboratories and focuses on four early-stage AWS pathways: alkaline exchange membrane (AEM) electrolysis, proton conducting solid oxide electrolysis (p-SOEC), photoelectrochemical, and thermochemical water splitting. Liquid alkaline and PEM electrolyzers are already commercial and significant advancements in oxygen conducting solid oxide electrolysis cells (o-SOECs) have been realized. Yet, these systems are still too expensive and not sufficiently durable for wide-scale commercialization. To enable high-volume manufacturing of affordable, durable, efficient electrolyzers, H2NEW (https://h2new.energy.gov/), another multi-lab consortium, was established in 2020. This comprehensive, concerted effort is focused on overcoming barriers related to components and materials integration and scale-up to achieve performance, durability, with an initial focus to achieve $2/kg H2 by 2026.

AEM↗