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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Unveiling decaying mechanism through quantitative structure-activity relationship in electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries

Understanding the decaying mechanism in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is critical to establishing a stable electrolyte system. Despite the advent of various novel electrolyte solvents designated for high-voltage LIBs, their working principles are not fully understood. Currently, oxidative decomposition of electrolytes is believed to be the major cause of capacity fade, and tremendous effort has been devoted to discovering a new electrolyte with enhanced anodic stability. However, the oxidative decomposition process cannot solely explain the rapid decay of some electrolyte systems with intrinsic high anodic stability when used with a high-nickel layered oxide cathode such as LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 O 2 (NMC622). In this report, a study of the quantitative structure-activity relationship was conducted to deepen the mechanistic understanding of the decay in high-voltage LIBs. Here, the results obtained from the newly introduced molecular pair analysis and linear free-energy relationship (LFER) studies were highly consistent with the solvation-involved decaying mechanism in a high-nickel layered oxide cathode cycling at high voltage (> 4.5 V vs. Li/Li + ). There was no evidence correlating the solvation ability of electrolyte solvents with the decay of a high-nickel layered oxide cathode cycling at a relatively low voltage (< 4.3 V vs. Li/Li + ), nor with the high-voltage spinel cathode LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 (LNMO). Undoubtedly, the unveiled mechanistic insight provides a critical guideline for the development of an appropriate electrolyte system targeting different high-voltage cathode materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Functional Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Proteomics Reveal Distinct Combat Strategies Between Lineages of Wood-Degrading Fungi With Redundant Wood Decay Mechanisms

Wood-degrading fungi vary in their strategies for deconstructing wood, and their competitive successes shape the rate and fate of carbon released from wood, Earth’s largest pool of aboveground terrestrial carbon. In this study, one-on-one interspecific interactions between two model brown rot (carbohydrate-selective) fungi, Gloeophyllum trabeum and Rhodonia (Postia) placenta, were studied on wood wafers where a clearly resolved interaction zone (IZ) could be generated, reproducibly. Comparative RNAseq and proteomics between the IZ and non-interacting hyphae of each species identified combative strategies for each fungus. Glycoside hydrolases were a relatively smaller portion of the interaction secretome compared to non-interacting hyphae. The interaction zone showed higher pectinase specific activity than all other sampling locations, and higher laminarinase specific activity (branched ß-glucan proxy) was seen in the IZ secretome relative to equivalent hyphae in single-species cultures. Our efforts also identified two distinct competitive strategies in these two fungi with a shared nutritional mode (brown rot) but polyphyletic ancestral lineages. Gloeophyllum trabeum (Gloeophyllum clade) employed secondary metabolite (SM) synthesis in response to a competitor, as shown by the upregulation of several SM-synthesizing genes in the interaction. R. placenta (Antrodia clade) instead upregulated a larger variety of uncharacterized oxidoreductases in interacting hyphae, suggesting that an oxidative burst may be a response to competitors in this fungus. Both species produced several hypothetical proteins exclusively in the interaction zone, leaving abundant unknowns on the battlefield. This work supports the existence of multiple interaction strategies among brown rot fungi and highlights the functional diversity among wood decay fungi.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1991

What heated the parent meteorite planets?

The plausibility of the two most wide discussed mechanisms, decay of short-lived Al-26 and solar wind induction heating, for heating the small planetesimals in which the meteorites formed are examined and shown to have significant problems. The main problem for the Al-26 decay mechanism is the fact that eucritic lavas, melted by the mysterious heating mechanism in some early planetesimal, did not contain enough Al-26 to decay to radiogenic Mg-26 when they erupted to their planetesimal surface and cooled. It is necessary to postulate that the lavas lingered underground while their Al-26 decayed away. The solar wind induction heat concept has the problem that astrophysical evidence has made is seem increasingly unlikely that an intense solar wind flux blew past planetesimals in the early solar system. Instead, it was probably collimated in the direction of the sun's poles by the persistence of the solar nebula during the T Tauri epoch.

Wood, John A.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Explaining Polarization Reversals in STEREO Wave Data

Recently Breneman et al. reported observations of large amplitude lightning and transmitter whistler mode waves from two STEREO passes through the inner radiation belt (L<2). Hodograms of the electric field in the plane transverse to the magnetic field showed that the transmitter waves underwent periodic polarization reversals. Specifically, their polarization would cycle through a pattern of right-hand to linear to left-hand polarization at a rate of roughly 200 Hz. The lightning whistlers were observed to be left-hand polarized at frequencies greater than the lower hybrid frequency and less than the transmitter frequency (21.4 kHz) and right-hand polarized otherwise. Only righthand polarized waves in the inner radiation belt should exist in the frequency range of the whistler mode and these reversals were not explained in the previous paper. We show, with a combination of observations and simulated wave superposition, that these polarization reversals are due to the beating of an incident electromagnetic whistler mode wave at 21.4 kHz and linearly polarized, symmetric lower hybrid sidebands Doppler-shifted from the incident wave by +/-200 Hz. The existence of the lower hybrid waves is consistent with the parametric decay mechanism of Lee and Kuo whereby an incident whistler mode wave decays into symmetric, short wavelength lower hybrid waves and a purely growing (zero-frequency) mode. Like the lower hybrid waves, the purely growing mode is Doppler-shifted by 200 Hz as observed on STEREO. This decay mechanism in the upper ionosphere has been previously reported at equatorial latitudes and is thought to have a direct connection with explosive spread F enhancements. As such it may represent another dissipation mechanism of VLF wave energy in the ionosphere and may help to explain a deficit of observed lightning and transmitter energy in the inner radiation belts as reported by Starks et al.

Breneman, A.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Understanding capacity fade in organic redox-flow batteries by combining spectroscopy with statistical inference techniques

Organic redox-active molecules are attractive as redox-flow battery (RFB) reactants because of their low anticipated costs and widely tunable properties. Unfortunately, many lab-scale flow cells experience rapid material degradation (from chemical and electrochemical decay mechanisms) and capacity fade during cycling (>0.1%/day) hindering their commercial deployment. In this work, we combine ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry and statistical inference techniques to elucidate the Michael attack decay mechanism for 4,5-dihydroxy-1,3-benzenedisulfonic acid (BQDS), a once-promising positive electrolyte reactant for aqueous organic redox-flow batteries. We use Bayesian inference and multivariate curve resolution on the spectroscopic data to derive uncertainty-quantified reaction orders and rates for Michael attack, estimate the spectra of intermediate species and establish a quantitative connection between molecular decay and capacity fade. Our work illustrates the promise of using statistical inference to elucidate chemical and electrochemical mechanisms of capacity fade in organic redox-flow battery together with uncertainty quantification, in flow cell-based electrochemical systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
NASA NTRS1975

Ring current proton decay by charge exchange

Explorer 45 measurements during the recovery phase of a moderate magnetic storm have confirmed that the charge exchange decay mechanism can account for the decay of the storm-time proton ring current. Data from the moderate magnetic storm of 24 February 1972 was selected for study since a symmetrical ring current had developed and effects due to asymmetric ring current losses could be eliminated. It was found that after the initial rapid decay of the proton flux, the equatorially mirroring protons in the energy range 5 to 30 keV decayed throughout the L-value range of 3.5 to 5.0 at the charge exchange decay rate calculated by Liemohn. After several days of decay, the proton fluxes reached a lower limit where an apparent equilibrium was maintained, between weak particle source mechanisms and the loss mechanisms, until fresh protons were injected into the ring current region during substorms. While other proton loss mechanisms may also be operating, the results indicate that charge exchange can entirely account for the storm-time proton ring current decay, and that this mechanism must be considered in all studies involving the loss of proton ring current particles.

Smith, P. H.↗
DOE OSTI2025

Measurement of the branching fraction of Λ + 𝑐 →𝑝⁢𝐾 0 𝑆⁢ 𝜋 0 at Belle

We report a precise measurement of the ratio of branching fractions ℬ⁡(Λ$^+_𝑐$ → 𝑝⁢𝐾$^0_𝑆$⁢𝜋 0 )/ℬ⁡(Λ$^+_𝑐$ → 𝑝⁢𝐾 − ⁢𝜋 + ) using 980 fb −1 of 𝑒 + ⁢𝑒 − data from the Belle experiment. We obtain a value of ℬ⁡(Λ$^+_𝑐$ → 𝑝⁢𝐾$^0_𝑆$⁢𝜋 0 )/ℬ⁡(Λ$^+_𝑐$ → 𝑝⁢𝐾 − ⁢𝜋 + ) =0.339 ±0.002 ±0.009, where the first and second uncertainties are statistical and systematic, respectively. This Belle result is consistent with the previous measurement from the CLEO experiment but has a fivefold improvement in precision. By combining our result with the world average ℬ⁡(Λ$^+_𝑐$ → 𝑝⁢𝐾 − ⁢𝜋 + ), we obtain the absolute branching fraction ℬ⁡(Λ$^+_𝑐$ → 𝑝⁢𝐾$^0_𝑆$⁢𝜋 0 ) =(2.12 ± 0.01 ±0.05 ±0.10)%, where the uncertainties are statistical, systematic, and the uncertainty in the absolute branching fraction scale ℬ⁡(Λ$^+_𝑐$ → 𝑝⁢𝐾 − ⁢𝜋 + ), respectively. This measurement can shed light on hadronic decay mechanisms in charmed baryon decays.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Beyond-mean-field approaches for nuclear neutrinoless double beta decay in the standard mechanism

Nuclear weak decays provide important probes to fundamental symmetries in nature. A precise description of these processes in atomic nuclei requires comprehensive knowledge on both the strong and weak interactions in the nuclear medium and on the dynamics of quantum many-body systems. In particular, an observation of the hypothetical double beta decay without emission of neutrinos (0νββ) would unambiguously demonstrate the Majorana nature of neutrinos and the existence of the lepton-number-violation process. It would also provide unique information on the ordering and absolute scale of neutrino masses. The next-generation tonne-scale experiments with sensitivity up to 10 28 years after a few years of running will probably provide a definite answer to these fundamental questions based on our current knowledge on the nuclear matrix element (NME), the precise determination of which is a challenge to nuclear theory. Beyond-mean-field approaches have been frequently adapted for the study of nuclear structure and decay throughout the nuclear chart for several decades. In this review, we summarize the status of beyond-mean-field calculations of the NMEs of 0νββ decay assuming the standard mechanism of an exchange of light Majorana neutrinos. In conclusion, the challenges and prospects in the extension and application of beyond-mean-field approaches for 0νββ decay are discussed.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Radiative three-body D -meson decays in and beyond the standard model

We study radiative charm decays D → P 1 P 2γ , P 1,2 = π, K in QCD factorization at leading order and within heavy hadron chiral perturbation theory. Branching ratios including resonance contributions are around ~10 –3 for the Cabibbo-favored modes into Kπγ and ~10 –5 for the singly Cabibbo-suppressed modes into π + π – γ,K + K – γ, and thus in reach of the flavor factories BES III and Belle II. Dalitz plots and forward–backward asymmetries reveal significant differences between the two QCD frameworks; such observables are therefore ideally suited for a data-driven identification of relevant decay mechanisms in the standard-model dominated D → Kπγ decays. This increases the potential to probe new physics with the D → π + π – γ and D → K + K – γ decays, which are sensitive to enhanced dipole operators. CP asymmetries are useful to test the SM and look for new physics in neutral |ΔC| = 1 transitions. Cuts in the Dalitz plot enhance the sensitivity to new physics due to the presence of both s- and t, u-channel intermediate resonances.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Intermolecular Coulombic Decay in Endohedral Fullerene at the 4 d → 4 f Resonance

Intermolecular processes offer unique decay mechanisms for complex systems to internally relax. Here, we report the observation of an intermolecular Coulombic decay channel in an endohedral fullerene, a holmium nitride complex (Ho 3 N) embedded within a C 80 fullerene, between neighboring holmium ions, and between the holmium complex and the carbon cage. By measuring the ions and the electrons in coincidence after XUV photoabsorption, we can isolate the different decay channels, which are found to be more prevalent relative to intra-atomic Auger decay.

74 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Low temperature aging in a molecular glass: the case of cis -methyl formate

Glassy films of cis-methyl formate show spontaneous dipole orientation on deposition from the vacuum, the so-called ‘spontelectric effect’, creating surface potentials and electric fields within the films. We follow the decay of these fields, and their accompanying dipole orientation, on the hours timescale at deposition temperatures between 40 K and 55 K. Our data trace the low temperature ‘secondary decay’ mechanism, at tens of degrees below the glass transition temperature of 90 K. We show that secondary decay is due to molecular rotation, with associated activation energies lying between 0.1 and 0.2 eV. Diffusion is absent, as established from published neutron reflectivity data. Using an analytical model for the spontelectric effect, data are placed on a quantitative footing, showing that angular motion in excess of 50° reproduces the observed values of activation energies. Exploitation of the spontelectric effect is new in the study of glass aging and is shown here to give insight into the elusive processes which take place far from the molecular glass transition temperature.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Independence of Environmental and Mechanical Damages on Silicone Adhesive Stored in a Thermo-Oxidative Environment

Abstract Elastomeric polymer materials hold a special place in today’s industrial sectors with respect to structural application needs. Low quality materials are detrimental to industries like aerospace, and automotive engineering. Assessment of the durability of elastomers for structural applications has been of much interest among the literary circles for decades and new materials keep outperforming the existing ones. Polymeric adhesives are one of the most abundantly used materials in these industries. All polymeric materials get damaged when in contact with aggressive environments in presence of high temperature and oxygen. Commonly referred to as thermo-oxidation, this environment exposes the material to heat and oxidation reactions in presence of oxygen. Resultantly, during service life, the damage to the polymer matrix is primarily caused by two factors: mechanical damage and environmental aging. Environmental aging is an irreversible phenomenon caused by changes in the molecular structure while mechanical damage maintains the shape of the polymer matrix, and the deterioration is mostly due to polymer chain mobility. Environmental aging can be caused by a single environmental agent or by a synergized impact of several environmental elements. Increasing temperature is found to be proportional to decreasing tensile strength and toughness of material. The rate and extent of degradation can be accessed by scrutinizing the changes in constitutive behavior of material through mechanical and chemical properties. Accelerated thermal aging is among the most common modes of process related degradation, leading generally to chain scission, and crosslinking phenomena and reduced resistance to fracture stress, and strain. In this experimental study, our goal is to separate the environmental degradation from mechanical damage. A silicone-based adhesive was aged in thermo-oxidative at (0%RH) aging environment. The damage and decay mechanisms have been used to draw a distinction between environmental degradation and mechanical damage. Material characterization included uniaxial tensile test (failure and cyclic) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tests on as-received and aged samples. Aging was conducted at three different temperatures (60°C, 80°C and 95°C) and six different exposure durations (1, 3, 10, 30, 90 and 200 days). This work confirms that environmental damage is superposed on top of the mechanical damage, and thus, they are separable. The total mechanical and environmental damage is a synergized effect of all exposure conditions and parameters involved i.e., aging time, temperature, and oxygen. The chemistry and mechanics of the polymer degradation were found to be in good agreement with each other.

Alazhary, Sharif↗
DOE OSTI2021

Observation of a dipole-bound excited state in 4-ethynylphenoxide and comparison with the quadrupole-bound excited state in the isoelectronic 4-cyanophenoxide

Negative ions do not possess Rydberg states, but can have Rydberg-like nonvalence excited states near the electron detachment threshold, including dipole-bound states (DBSs) and quadrupole-bound states (QBSs). While DBSs have been studied extensively, quadrupole-bound excited states have been more rarely observed. 4-cyanophenoxide (4CP – ) was the first anion observed to possess a quadrupole-bound exited state 20 cm-1 below its detachment threshold. Here we report the observation of a DBS in the isoelectronic 4-ethynylphenoxide anion (4EP – ), providing a rare opportunity to compare the behaviors of a dipole-bound and a quadrupole-bound excited state in a pair of very similar anions. Photodetachment spectroscopy (PDS) of cryogenically-cooled 4EP – reveals a DBS 76 cm -1 below its detachment threshold. Photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) at 266 nm shows that the electronic structure of 4EP – and 4CP – are nearly identical. The observed vibrational features in both the PDS and PES, as well as autodetachment from the nonvalence excited states, are also found to be similar for both anions. However, resonant two-photon detachment (R2PD) from the bound vibrational ground state is observed to be very different for the DBS in 4EP – and the QBS in 4CP – . The R2PD spectra reveal that decays take place from both the DBS and QBS to the respective anion ground electronic states within the 5 ns detachment laser pulse due to internal conversion followed by intramolecular vibrational redistribution (IVR), but the decay mechanisms appear to be very different. In the R2PD spectrum of 4EP – , we observe strong threshold electron signals, which are due to detachment, by the second photon, of highly rotationally excited anions resulted from the decay of the DBS. On the other hand, in the R2PD spectrum of 4CP – we observe well-resolved vibrational peaks due to the three lowest-frequency vibrational modes of 4CP – , which are populated from the decay of the QBS. Here, the different behaviors of the R2PD spectra suggest unexpected differences between the relaxation mechanisms of the dipole-bound and quadrupole-bound excited states.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Pushing the Limits: Maximizing Energy Density in Silicon Sulfide Solid‐State Batteries

Here, for the first time, we demonstrate a silicon solid-state battery (SSB) architecture that achieves >400 Wh kg −1 , approaching the theoretical limit for silicon-based SSBs. This configuration features a 99.9 wt% micro-Si, a thin sulfide solid electrolyte (SSE), and a high-loading NMC811. Key to these results is strategically selecting and evaluating the processing techniques, whether wet or dry, for the negative electrode, positive electrode and thin sheet-type SSE. Excessive lithium incorporation into the silicon host, beyond the Li 3.75 +Si phase to form a LiSi composite, is essential to match the high capacity of the positive electrode. This SSB achieves over 1000 cycles for a 2 mAh cm −2 with ≈80% capacity retention and 94% capacity retention for 3 mAh cm −2 over 500 cycles at 25 °C. Post analysis identifies the primary capacity decay mechanisms as oxidation at the NMC/SSE interface and structural disruptions within NMC. Meanwhile, the Si electrode maintains a robust solid-electrolyte interphase layer, minimizing capacity decay. This study highlights the necessity for improved NMC coatings, lattice oxygen stabilization, and a durable positive electrode-electrolyte interface to improve the long-term stability of SSBs. Strategies leading to a single-layer pouch cell SSB exceeding 400 Wh kg −1 are developed.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Nanostructural Analysis of Enzymatic and Non-enzymatic Brown Rot Fungal Deconstruction of the Lignocellulose Cell Wall†

Brown rot (BR) decay mechanisms employ carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) as well as a unique non-enzymatic chelator-mediated Fenton (CMF) chemistry to deconstruct lignocellulosic materials. Unlike white rot fungi, BR fungi lack peroxidases for lignin deconstruction, and also lack some endoglucanase/cellobiohydrolase activities. The role that the CMF mechanism plays in “opening up” the wood cell wall structure in advance of enzymatic action, and any interaction between CMF constituents and the selective CAZyme suite that BRs possess, is still unclear. Expression patterns for CMF redox metabolites and lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase (LPMO–AA9 family) genes showed that some LPMO isozymes were upregulated with genes associated with CMF at early stages of brown rot by Gloeophyllum trabeum. In the structural studies, wood decayed by the G. trabeum was compared to CMF-treated wood, or CMF-treated wood followed by treatment with either the early-upregulated LPMO or a commercial CAZyme cocktail. Structural modification of decayed/treated wood was characterized using small angle neutron scattering. CMF treatment produced neutron scattering patterns similar to that of the BR decay indicating that both systems enlarged the nanopore structure of wood cell walls to permit enzyme access. Enzymatic deconstruction of cellulose or lignin in raw wood samples was not achieved via CAZyme cocktail or LPMO enzyme action alone. CMF treatment resulted in depolymerization of crystalline cellulose as attack progressed from the outer regions of individual crystallites. Multiple pulses of CMF treatment on raw wood showed a progressive increase in the spacing between the cellulose elementary fibrils (EFs), indicating the CMF eroded the matrix outside the EF bundles, leading to less tightly packed EFs. Peracetic acid delignification treatment enhanced subsequent CMF treatment effects, and allowed both enzyme systems to further increase spacing of the EFs. Moreover, even after a single pulse of CMF treatment, both enzymes were apparently able to penetrate the cell wall to further increase EF spacing. The data suggest the potential for the early-upregulated LPMO enzyme to work in association with CMF chemistry, suggesting that G. trabeum may have adopted mechanisms to integrate non-enzymatic and enzymatic chemistries together during early stages of brown rot decay.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Understanding the Nature of Capacity Decay and Interface Properties in Li//LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 Cells by Cycling Aging and Titration Techniques

The spinel structure LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 (LNMO) is a propitious cathode material for next-generation lithium-ion batteries for fast charge–discharge applications, but its capacity decay mechanism and rate-limiting process are not yet well understood. In this work, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) with galvanostatic intermittent titration (GITT) and cycling aging techniques were employed to investigate the nature of capacity decay in disordered-phase LNMO. Different resistive components were separated after every 10 cycles. Cell overvoltages (ΔVs) due to ohmic conduction, charge transfer (CT), and concentration polarization (CP) were individually determined. Results revealed that the cell exhibited a higher ΔV at a higher discharged state. However, the ΔV value for CP was higher at a higher state of charge (SOC), and the overall LNMO/electrolyte interface played a major role in the rate-determining step. Battery life was estimated based on the results. Battery calendar life was found to be more vulnerable than cycle life. Furthermore, results also indicated that the working SOC range could be optimized based on the resistance analysis by avoiding those SOCs that have the most detrimental impact (e.g., heat generation and fire hazard).

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Radiation-induced reaction kinetics of Zn 2+ with e S - and Cl 2 ˙ - in Molten LiCl–KCl eutectic at 400–600 °C

We report molten chloride salts are currently under consideration as combined coolant and liquid fuel for next-generation molten salt nuclear reactors. Unlike complementary light-water reactor technologies, the radiation science underpinning molten salts is in its infancy, and thus requires a fundamental mechanistic investigation to elucidate the radiation-driven chemistry within molten salt reactors. Here we present an electron pulse radiolysis kinetics study into the behaviour of the primary radiolytic species generated in molten chloride systems, i.e., the solvated electron (e S - ) and di-chlorine radical anion (Cl 2 ˙- ). We examine the reaction of e S - with Zn 2+ from 400–600 °C (E a = 30.31 ± 0.09 kJ mol -1 ), and the kinetics and decay mechanisms of Cl 2 ˙- in molten lithium chloride-potassium chloride (LiCl–KCl) eutectic. In the absence of Zn 2+ , the lifetime of e S - was found to be dictated by residual impurities in ostensibly “pure” salts, and thus the observed decay is dependent on sample history rather than being an intrinsic property of the salt. The decay of Cl 2 ˙- is complex, owing to the competition of Cl 2 ˙- disproportionation with several other chemical pathways, one of which involves reduction by radiolytically-produced Zn + species. Overall, the reported findings demonstrate the richness and complexity of chemistry involving the interactions of ionizing radiation with molten salts.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗