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Magnetostrictive Pressure Regulating System
A magnetostrictive pressure regulating system includes a magnetostrictive valve that incorporates a magnetostrictive actuator with at least one current-carrying coil disposed thereabout. A pressure force sensor, in fluid communication with the fluid exiting the valve, includes (i) a magnetostrictive material, (ii) a magnetic field generator in proximity to the magnetostrictive material for inducing a magnetic field in and surrounding the magnetostrictive material wherein lines of magnetic flux passing through the magnetostrictive material are defined, and (iii) a sensor positioned adjacent to the magnetostrictive material and in the magnetic field for measuring changes in at least one of flux angle and flux density when the magnetostrictive material experiences an applied force that is aligned with the lines of magnetic flux. The pressure of the fluid exiting the valve causes the applied force. A controller coupled to the sensor and to the current-carrying coil adjusts a current supplied to the current-carrying coil based on the changes so-measured.
Influence of atomic ordering and cerium doping on magnetostrictive Fe-Al alloys
Magnetostrictive iron-aluminum alloys can be a low-cost, mechanically stable alternative to iron-gallium and rare earth-iron alloys. The magnetostrictive performance of polycrystalline Fe-Al (alfenol) with 13–24 at. % Al was investigated, studying the role of compositional variation and thermal history. It was found that rapid cooling enhances the magnetostrictive response, and peak magnetostriction was found in Fe 78 Al 22 by high temperature annealing followed by quenching. Synchrotron diffraction enabled a direct correlation of magnetostrictive behavior and the transition from short-range order to long-range ordered cluster domains in the material which can be suppressed by rapid cooling. Following recent success of doping Fe-Ga with rare earth elements, we investigated the influence of Ce doping on improving magnetostriction and found that Fe-Al shows negligible solubility for cerium, inhibiting potential magnetostriction enhancement. In conclusion, our results illustrate the complex interplay between phase stability, ordering, and optimized magnetostrictive response.
Magnetostrictive materials for enhanced sensors and electronic components
Magnetostriction is a property of magnetic materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions proportional to their magnetization. Low-cost, mechanically robust magnetostrictive sensors would be valuable for a wide range of applications across the DOE and national security mission space, such as monitoring the internal conditions of pipelines, rapidly detecting high-impedance faults in power lines (e.g. trees touching power lines), or enhancing implantable systems for the human body. Dilute doping (<1 at.%) of rare earth elements (REE) has been shown to amplify the magnetostriction. Furthermore, alloy processing by rapid cooling from high temperature tends to result in texturing and therefore greater magnetostriction values, which bodes well for developing advanced manufacturing approaches significantly less expensive than single crystal growth. The goal of this effort was to develop robust, low-cost magnetostrictive materials compatible with advanced manufacturing techniques to exploit the rapid cooling of these approaches while retaining the ability to produce fully dense structures. To be useful as a sensor or actuator the coercivity of the material needs to be minimized so that there is minimal magnetic hysteresis. Employing a small scale laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) system, specimens of Fe-Ga-Ce were built from alloy powder which had a magnetostriction of 289 ppm along the build direction and 197 ppm perpendicular to the build direction. These values are not far from the 310-350 ppm observed in single crystals of Fe-Ga. The results of the series of samples run suggest this is a very promising route for REE doping to higher levels, especially if the powders can be produced using far from equilibrium approaches such as ultrasonic atomization. The promising results from applying additive manufacturing techniques to these materials, particularly the inexpensive Fe-Al system, has potential for inexpensive high-performing magnetostrictive parts producible at large scales for low-cost sensors.
Magnetostriction of some rare earth-aluminum Laves phase compounds
Measurements of the linear and volume magnetostriction of RAl2 cubic Laves compounds in which R is one of the rare earth elements Gd, Dy, Ho or Er, at temperatures between 4.2 K and the Curie temperature of each compound, are reported. Magnetic fields up to 2.5 Tesla were applied, and magnetostriction was measured using standard strain gage techniques. Saturation magnetostrictions of 17 x 10 to the -6th, -1420 x 10 to the -6th, 60 x 10 to the -6th and -920 x 10 to the -6th are determined at 4.2 K for GdAl2, DyAl2, HoAl2 and ErAl2, respectively. Large forced magnetostriction is observed in GdAl2 above the saturation field and the strain temperature dependence shows a decrease in magnitude below 40 K. A linear dependence of magnetostriction on magnetic field was observed for DyAl2 above 40 K, and the observed temperature dependence is interpreted in terms of the lowest order single-ion magnetoelastic theory. An observed decrease in the magnitude of the strain of HoAl2 below 15 K is associated with a change of the easy direction of magnetization, while in the case of ErAl2, magnetostriction is observed to occur normally up to the Curie temperature. Large volume magnetostriction is obtained for all the compounds with the exception of GdAl2.
Magnetostrictive Alternator
A magnetostrictive alternator configured to convert pressure waves into electrical energy is provided. It should be appreciated that the magnetostrictive alternator may be combined in some embodiments with a Stirling engine to produce electrical power. The Stirling engine creates the oscillating pressure wave and the magnetostrictive alternator converts the pressure wave into electricity. In some embodiments, the magnetostrictive alternator may include aerogel material and magnetostrictive material. The aerogel material may be configured to convert a higher amplitude pressure wave into a lower amplitude pressure wave. The magnetostrictive material may be configured to generate an oscillating magnetic field when the magnetostrictive material is compressed by the lower amplitude pressure wave.
Magnetostrictive alternator
A magnetostrictive alternator configured to convert pressure waves into electrical energy is provided. It should be appreciated that the magnetostrictive alternator may be combined in some embodiments with a Stirling engine to produce electrical power. The Stirling engine creates the oscillating pressure wave and the magnetostrictive alternator converts the pressure wave into electricity. In some embodiments, the magnetostrictive alternator may include aerogel material and magnetostrictive material. The aerogel material may be configured to convert a higher amplitude pressure wave into a lower amplitude pressure wave. The magnetostrictive material may be configured to generate an oscillating magnetic field when the magnetostrictive material is compressed by the lower amplitude pressure wave.
Texture development in magnetostrictive Fe-Ga alloys processed by laser powder bed fusion
Iron-gallium (Fe-Ga, Galfenol) alloys are promising magnetostrictive materials for actuators, sensors, and energy harvesting, but their performance is highly sensitive to microstructure and texture. Additive manufacturing by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) offers a pathway to engineer texture and integrate functional materials into complex geometries. Here, we fabricate Fe-Ga alloys (Fe 82.2 Ga 17.8 ) by LPBF of gas-atomized powders and systematically optimize laser power and scan speed to maximize density and control texture. Nearly full-density parts (up to 99.6 %) are achieved within a narrow processing window. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) reveals a strong <100> fiber texture aligned with the build direction and columnar grains up to 1 mm long. Magnetostriction measurements show saturation magnetostriction of 190 ppm in the build direction. Correlating texture data with macroscopic magnetostriction, we estimate intrinsic magnetostriction constants (λ 100 = 228 ppm, λ 111 = 12 ppm), closely matching single crystal-derived values. These results demonstrate the critical interplay between processing, texture, and functional performance in additively manufactured Fe-Ga alloys and establish LPBF as a viable route for high-performance magnetostrictive materials.
Magnetostrictive Ultrasonic Waveguide Transducer for In-Pile Thermometry
Real-time and reliable temperature measurement on nuclear fuels is crucial for the safe operation of existing pressurized-water reactors and future advanced nuclear reactors. Magnetostrictive materials deform when subjected to a magnetic field or exhibit magnetization variation when stressed. Here, based on these properties, this study prototyped an ultrasonic thermometer (UT) consisting of a magnetostrictive waveguide, a dc coil providing appropriate magnetic biasing, and an ac coil generating an acoustic impulse and detecting the resulting acoustic echoes. By tracking the time of flight between the excitation pulse and the echoes, the UT can potentially detect nuclear fuel cladding temperature from a long distance. In this study, magnetostrictive iron–gallium alloys, or Galfenol, were selected as the waveguide due to their large magnetostriction, superior temperature survivability, excellent radiation resilience, and high mechanical robustness. A multiphysics finite-element model considering electrical, magnetic, and mechanical dynamics in the magnetostrictive UT was then developed. The model exhibited an error of 0.24% in time-of-flight simulation and, therefore, enabled computer-aided design and guided signal processing. Between room temperature and 120 °C, the new Galfenol-based UT exhibits a linear sensitivity of 162.8×10 ₋6 °C ₋1 , which is 51.7% higher than a previous magnetostrictive UT based on iron–cobalt–vanadium alloys.
Cold Spray Cobalt Magnetostrictive Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers for High Temperature Structure Monitoring
The Department of Energy’s Advanced Sensors and Instrumentation program seeks to develop and qualify advanced sensors for the nuclear industry. Reliable high temperature and high radiation sensors for detection and characterization of structural flaws in pipes, vessels, and structurally critical components is a weakness for both conventional light water reactors with coolant T-hot approaching 350oC, and for advanced reactors with T-hot temperatures in excess of 500 to 800oC. Magnetostrictive Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers using a cold spray cobalt coating have been proposed as a sensor design that can withstand these kinds of temperatures and radiation levels to serve as online sensors to detect flaws before cracks, pits, or erosion/corrosion flaws progress to through-wall failures. This report tests cold spray cobalt as part of a magnetostrictive EMAT for high temperature service. Cobalt is known to have strong magnetostrictive properties however the effect of cold spray application is not well studied. This program was surprised to discover that cold sprayed cobalt exhibited little or no magnetostrictive behavior until it was thermally annealed. Following annealing to 650oC however, cold spray cobalt did exhibit a magnetostrictive response. Work to date prior to this milestone report publication showed that magnetostrictive EMAT was successfully tested to 400oC with an alnico permanent magnet. The program plans to extend testing with an electromagnet to higher temperatures. This follow-on work will be reported under subsequent publications or as a revision to this report.
Magnetostrictive Alternator
This innovation replaces the linear alternator presently used in Stirling engines with a continuous-gradient, impedance-matched, oscillating magnetostrictive transducer that eliminates all moving parts via compression, maintains high efficiency, costs less to manufacture, reduces mass, and eliminates the need for a bearing system. The key components of this new technology are the use of stacked magnetostrictive materials, such as Terfenol-D, under a biased magnetic and stress-induced compression, continuous-gradient impedance-matching material, coils, force-focusing metallic structure, and supports. The acoustic energy from the engine travels through an impedancematching layer that is physically connected to the magnetostrictive mass. Compression bolts keep the structure under compressive strain, allowing for the micron-scale compression of the magnetostrictive material and eliminating the need for bearings. The relatively large millimeter displacement of the pressure side of the impedance-matching material is reduced to micron motion, and undergoes stress amplification at the magnetostrictive interface. The alternating compression and expansion of the magnetostrictive material creates an alternating magnetic field that then induces an electric current in a coil that is wound around the stack. This produces electrical power from the acoustic pressure wave and, if the resonant frequency is tuned to match the engine, can replace the linear alternator that is commonly used.
Giant magnetostriction and nonsaturating electric polarization up to 60 T in the polar magnet $\mathrm{CaBaCo_4O_7}$
Giant magnetostriction in insulating magnetic materials is highly required for applications but is rarely observed. Here we show that giant magnetostriction (> 1500 ppm) can be achieved in an insulating transition metal oxide CaBaCo 4 O 7 where the ferrimagnetic ordering at T c ~ 62K is associated with a huge change in the lattice. Moreover, because this material is pyroelectric with a nonswitchable electric polarization (P), the giant magnetostriction results in a pronounced magnetoelectric effect—a huge change of electric polarization (ΔP ~ 1.6μC/cm 2 ) in response to the applied magnetic field up to 60 T. Geometric frustration as well as the orbital instability of Co 2+ /Co 3+ ions is believed to play a crucial role in the giant magnetostriction. Here our study provides insights on how to achieve both giant magnetostriction and pronounced magnetoelectric effect in insulating transition metal oxides.
Vibration Control via Stiffness Switching of Magnetostrictive Transducers
In this paper, a computational study is presented of structural vibration control that is realized by switching a magnetostrictive transducer between high and low stiffness states. Switching is accomplished by either changing the applied magnetic field with a voltage excitation or changing the shunt impedance on the transducer's coil (i.e., the magnetostrictive material's magnetic boundary condition). Switched-stiffness vibration control is simulated using a lumped mass supported by a damper and the magnetostrictive transducer (mount), which is represented by a nonlinear, electromechanical model. Free vibration of the mass is calculated while varying the mount's stiffness according to a reference switched-stiffness vibration control law. The results reveal that switching the magnetic field produces the desired change in stiffness, but also an undesired actuation force that can significantly degrade the vibration control. Hence, a modified switched-stiffness control law that accounts for the actuation force is proposed and implemented for voltage-controlled stiffness switching. The influence of the magneto-mechanical bias condition is also discussed. Voltage-controlled stiffness switching is found to introduce damping equivalent to a viscous damping factor up to about 0.13; this is shown to primarily result from active vibration reduction caused by the actuation force. The merit of magnetostrictive switched-stiffness vibration control is then quantified by comparing the results of voltage- and shunt-controlled stiffness switching to the performance of optimal magnetostrictive shunt damping. For the cases considered, optimal resistive shunt damping performed considerably better than both voltage- and shunt-controlled stiffness switching.
Vibration Control via Stiffness Switching of Magnetostrictive Transducers
This paper presents a computational study of structural vibration control that is realized by switching a magnetostrictive transducer between high and low stiffness states. Switching is accomplished by either changing the applied magnetic field with a voltage excitation or changing the shunt impedance on the transducer's coil (i.e., the magnetostrictive material's magnetic boundary condition). Switched-stiffness vibration control is simulated using a lumped mass supported by a damper and the magnetostrictive transducer (mount), which is represented by a nonlinear, electromechanical model. Free vibration of the mass is calculated while varying the mount's stiffness according to a reference switched-stiffness vibration control law. The results reveal that switching the magnetic field produces the desired change in stiffness, but also an undesired actuation force that can significantly degrade the vibration control. Hence, a modified switched-stiffness control law that accounts for the actuation force is proposed and implemented for voltage-controlled stiffness switching. The influence of the magnetomechanical bias condition is also discussed. Voltage-controlled stiffness switching is found to introduce damping equivalent to a viscous damping factor up to about 0.25; this is shown to primarily result from active vibration reduction caused by the actuation force. The merit of magnetostrictive switched-stiffness vibration control is then quantified by comparing the results of voltage- and shunt-controlled stiffness switching to the performance of optimal magnetostrictive shunt damping.
Engineering new limits to magnetostriction through metastability in iron-gallium alloys
Magnetostrictive materials transduce magnetic and mechanical energies and when combined with piezoelectric elements, evoke magnetoelectric transduction for high-sensitivity magnetic field sensors and energy-efficient beyond-CMOS technologies. The dearth of ductile, rare-earth-free materials with high magnetostrictive coefficients motivates the discovery of superior materials. Fe 1- x Ga x alloys are amongst the highest performing rare-earth-free magnetostrictive materials; however, magnetostriction becomes sharply suppressed beyond x = 19% due to the formation of a parasitic ordered intermetallic phase. Here, we harness epitaxy to extend the stability of the BCC Fe 1- x Ga x alloy to gallium compositions as high as x = 30% and in so doing dramatically boost the magnetostriction by as much as 10x relative to the bulk and 2x larger than canonical rare-earth based magnetostrictors. A Fe 1- x Ga x - [Pb(Mg 1/3 Nb 2/3 )O 3 ] 0.7 -[PbTiO 3 ] 0.3 (PMN-PT) composite magnetoelectric shows robust 90° electrical switching of magnetic anisotropy and a converse magnetoelectric coefficient of 2.0 × 10 -5 s m -1 . When optimally scaled, this high coefficient implies stable switching at ~80 aJ per bit.
Magnetostrictive materials for enhanced sensors and electronic components
Magnetostriction is a property of magnetic materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions when their magnetization changes. Low-cost, mechanically robust magnetostrictive sensors would be valuable for a wide range of applications addressing DOE's energy, environmental, and national security missions. Several examples include monitoring internal conditions of pipelines, enhancing implantable systems for the human body, and improving the electrical grid by providing real time sensors for detecting high impedance faults that may act as ignition sources for forest fires. Historically, magnetostrictive materials tended to be expensive and mechanically brittle, but recent developments in iron-based alloys, especially those that include dilute solutions of rare earth elements, have demonstrated useful magnetostriction values, mechanical robustness, and low costs. This project investigated addition of dilute cerium doping on the magnetostrictive properties of Fe-Ga and Fe-Al alloys. Advanced manufacturing techniques were applied to these materials to take advantage of rapid cooling of the alloy to stabilize desired phases and to make near net shape coupons. These coupons develop significant texturing, offering a route to target microstructures with exceptional performance.
Studies of magnetostriction and spin polarized band structures of rare earth intermetallics
Anisotropic magnetostriction measurements of R6Fe23, R = (Tb, Dy, Ho, and Er) were carried out from 77 K to room temperature. Magnetic fields up to 2.1 Tesla were applied. All the compounds exhibited large magnetostrictions at 77 K, the largest effect being obtained for Tb6Fe23. Saturation magnetostriction values for the compounds were also determined for 77 K and room temperature. Results of the temperature dependence of magnetostriction for Er6Fe23 are in good agreement with Callen and Callen's single ion theory. Therefore, the main sources of magnetostriction in this compound is the Er ion. The spin-up and spin-down electronic energy bands, the density of states and the magnetic moments of YCo5, SmCo5, and GdCo5 were calculated by the spin polarized augmented plane wave technique. The calculations obtained show the origin of the moment, provide good estimates of its magnitude and variation, and the reasons for those variations. They also show the important role of partial charge transfer and of d-d electronic coupling. Calculations for LaNi5 and GdNi5 systems are discussed.
Development of magnetostrictive active members for control of space structures
The goal of this Phase 2 Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) project was to determine the technical feasibility of developing magnetostrictive active members for use as truss elements in space structures. Active members control elastic vibrations of truss-based space structures and integrate the functions of truss structure element, actively controlled actuator, and sensor. The active members must control structural motion to the sub-micron level and, for many proposed space applications, work at cryogenic temperatures. Under this program both room temperature and cryogenic temperature magnetostrictive active members were designed, fabricated, and tested. The results of these performance tests indicated that room temperature magnetostrictive actuators feature higher strain, stiffness, and force capability with lower amplifier requirements than similarly sized piezoelectric or electrostrictive active members, at the cost of higher mass. Two different cryogenic temperature magnetostrictive materials were tested at liquid nitrogen temperatures, both with larger strain capability than the room temperature magnetostrictive materials. The cryogenic active member development included the design and fabrication of a cryostat that allows operation of the cryogenic active member in a space structure testbed.