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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Laser-engraved defects in TiO 2 support: Enhancing reducibility and redox capability of Pt/TiO 2 catalyst for reactive and selective hydrogenation

Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) has been studied as catalyst or catalyst support in catalysis. Its synthesis or modification approach controls the structural, optical, and electronic properties. Here, in this work, we applied laser engraving to the anatase TiO 2 and studied the consequent changes in its structure and property as well as the properties of TiO 2 supported platinum (i.e., Pt/TiO 2 ) catalyst. The laser engraving enlarged the particle size, formed rutile phase and created defects (i.e., oxygen vacancy (O v ) and Ti 3+ ) in anatase TiO 2 . This induced band gap change and enhanced visible light absorption. The defects created by laser engraving are stable and more reducible than those existed in the pristine TiO 2 . The defective TiO 2 is structurally stable and has great redox properties. The metal-support interaction in the Pt/defective TiO 2 catalyst is stronger than that of the pristine Pt/TiO 2 catalyst, which enabled higher reactivity and selectivity in hydrogenation of 3-nitrostyrene and furfuryl alcohol. Laser-engraved TiO 2 has been rarely studied for thermal catalysis. This work provides basic understanding of material properties and catalysis application of laser-engraved catalyst supports and catalysts in field of thermal catalysis.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Application of machine learning interatomic potentials in heterogeneous catalysis

Heterogeneous catalysts are crucial in modern societies as they promote sustainability by enabling lower-energy pathways for various chemical reactions. While Density Functional Theory (DFT) computations can provide critical insights into how heterogeneous catalysts operate at the atomic level, they are limited by computational costs and unfavorable scaling with system size. Recently, machine learning interatomic potentials (MLIPs) have emerged as a promising alternative to DFT, offering near-DFT accuracy at significantly reduced cost. Here, in this perspective, we discuss the application of MLIPs in heterogeneous catalyst modeling as a surrogate for DFT. We detail how MLIPs have been applied in thermal catalysis to probe active sites, enable studying complex metallic and nanoporous catalysts, and investigate the reconstruction of catalytic surfaces. We review the use of MLIPs in electrocatalysis and photocatalysis, emphasizing their capabilities in studying transition metal oxide surfaces and solid–liquid interfaces. We also discuss the current limitations of MLIPs, particularly their challenges with transferability and description of non-local interactions. Finally, we conclude by identifying promising and underexplored domains in which MLIPs can further advance our understanding of heterogeneous catalysts.

Catalytic surfaces↗
DOE OSTI2025

Crossing the Oxo‐Peroxo Wall for Selective Electrochemical Epoxidation

Electrochemical oxidation in water requires the formation of reactive oxygen species to be able to oxidize unsaturated hydrocarbons to epoxides, aldehydes, and ketones. These reactions, broadly classified as alternative oxidation reactions (AOR), directly compete with the prevalent oxygen evolution reaction (OER). In molecular catalysis, the Oxo-Wall dictates a transition from a stable oxo intermediate (OER active) to a meta-stable metal-oxo (OER inactive) generally occurs. In this work on heterogeneous catalysis, the same Oxo-Wall applies, however, a meta-stable oxo preferentially coordinates with lattice oxygen to form a more stable surface peroxo intermediate. A universal free energy onset of this process is identified at 3.39 eV under electrochemical activation in water and show that it is completely decoupled from the OER oxo species. Such decoupling gives rise to a new region of oxygen reactivity relevant for AOR where a selective oxidation of the unsaturated C-C bonds is predicted to occur instead of OER. A distinct AOR overpotential volcano is constructed and identify recently reported electrocatalysts, including palladium-platinum for propylene epoxidation and silver-nickel for ethylene epoxidation, along with others such as TiO 2 and CuO. Broader implications and limitations of electrochemical AOR are discussed, highlighting their potential to enable electrochemically enhanced thermal catalysis.

Electrocatalysis↗
DOE OSTI2025

Atmospheric-pressure ammonia synthesis on AuRu catalysts enabled by plasmon-controlled hydrogenation and nitrogen-species desorption

The Haber–Bosch process for ammonia synthesis contributes up to ~3% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Plasmonic catalysts strongly concentrate light and can alter the reaction intermediates via out-of-equilibrium processes, providing the potential for an alternative, less-energy-intensive pathway to synthesize ammonia. Here, in this study, we show that gold-ruthenium (AuRu) bimetallic nanoparticles can synthesize ammonia at room temperature and pressure using visible light. We create AuRu alloys with varying compositions and achieve ammonia production rates of ~60 μmol per gram of catalyst bed per hour. In situ infrared spectroscopy reveals that light accelerates the hydrogenation of nitrogen intermediates compared to conventional thermal catalysis. Through computational modelling, we demonstrate that photo-excited electrons enable associative hydrogenation pathways for nitrogen activation rather than direct nitrogen–nitrogen bond breaking. This light-assisted mechanism requires both hydrogen and light working together to overcome the nitrogen activation barrier, mimicking how biological enzymes produce ammonia naturally and providing fundamental insights for developing sustainable, energy-efficient chemical synthesis.

Yuan, Lin [Stanford Univ., CA (United States)] (OR↗
DOE OSTI2024

Adsorbate-induced adatom formation on Au-Cu bimetallic alloys and its possible consequences for CO 2 electroreduction

The adsorbate-induced formation of sub-nanometer clusters on transition-metal single crystals observed in previous high-pressure microscopic studies hinted at the in-situ formation of unique active sites even on large nanoparticle catalysts. We propose that the adatom formation energy can be used as an energetic descriptor for the initial step toward the adsorbate-induced metal-cluster formation process. This descriptor can be efficiently computed using density functional theory (DFT) calculations and applied for screening and identification of metal catalysts where this phenomenon may play an important role in generating active sites in-situ. As a proof of concept, here, we construct an adatom formation energy database for three Au x Cu y alloys (x:y = 3:1, 1:1, or 1:3) and eighteen adsorbates (H, C, N, O, F, S, Cl, Br, I, CH x , NH x (x = 1 – 3), CO, NO, and OH) commonly involved in catalytic reactions. The energetics of adatom formation were examined in all cases where the (111) terrace, (211) step-edge, and (874) kink were the sources of the adatom. We demonstrate that the presence of an adsorbate could alter not only the energetics for adatom formation but also the elemental nature of the preferred adatom being formed. Using our database, we identified promising systems which favor adsorbate-induced adatom formation under near-ambient conditions. Specifically, CO-induced adatom formation on all three Au-Cu alloy surfaces could occur under CO 2 electroreduction (CO 2 RR) conditions. This phenomenon offers a qualitative explanation for the experimentally observed CO 2 RR activity on Au-Cu alloy catalysts. As a result, our methodology offers an easily expandable and efficient approach for large-scale catalyst screening with regards to adatom/cluster formation under reaction conditions and provides insight into the possible nature of active sites on alloy catalysts from a novel perspective.

Active site↗
DOE OSTI2025

Electron Inversion and Tunneling at Silicon Thermal Oxide Interfaces for Solar-Driven Molecular Catalysis to Syngas

Semiconductor photoelectrodes are regularly coupled to solid-state heterogeneous catalysts to perform solar-driven reduction of CO 2 . Less frequently, molecular catalysts are employed to better control the reactivity toward desired products, yet the development of robust semiconductor/molecule interfaces has proven challenging. Here, we demonstrate that a 2–3 nm thermal oxide layer on Si exhibits stability in aqueous solution, high photovoltage, and a photocurrent density of ∼10 mA/cm 2 for the solar-driven photoelectrochemical reduction of a homogeneous molecular catalyst, producing syngas with an ∼2:1 H 2 to CO ratio. Because of a low defect density, the oxide interface forms an electron inversion layer with metal-like electron density at cathodic potentials. This inversion layer facilitates electron transfer to redox-active molecules via tunneling even if the molecule’s reduction potential is beyond the semiconductor’s conduction band edge. Using an electrolyte solution composed of a homogeneous cobalt bis(terpyridine) catalyst in a water/organic solvent mixture, stable photoelectrochemistry was observed under 1-sun illumination, exhibiting an ∼30% Faradaic efficiency for CO that was similar to a glassy carbon electrode under comparable conditions. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that an ultrathin thermal oxide interface is a robust platform for development of aqueous-stable, molecule-driven photoelectrocatalysis.

Catalysts↗
DOE OSTI2024

A general flame aerosol route to high-entropy nanoceramics

High-entropy ceramics are an emerging class of materials with fascinating characteristics. However, elemental immiscibility and crystal complexity limit the development of a general synthesis strategy, and common methods yield bulk materials. Here, we introduce a transformative non-equilibrium flame aerosol technique for synthesizing high-entropy nanoceramics. This scalable, one-step process enables the production of high-entropy oxide nanoceramics with an unprecedented diversity of crystal structures, including fluorite-phase materials that integrate up to 22 distinct cation elements. The method’s capacity for entropic stabilization and grain refinement significantly improves the thermal stability of these nanostructures. In a representative application, a Pt-(MgCoNiCuZn)O high-entropy single-atom catalyst showed superior activity and long-term stability, maintaining constant CO 2 conversion over 670 h and dramatically outperforming conventional catalysts. Finally, the general approach opens a vast composition and structure space for the creation of high-entropy oxide nanomaterials for application across diverse fields, including catalysis, energy storage, sensing, and thermal management.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Enhancing the Value of Wasted and Stranded Natural Gas Resources Through Conversion Into Aromatics Using Microwaves

Natural gas flaring results in the waste of significant amounts of valuable domestic energy resources while also producing undesirable environmental impacts. Transforming natural gas into value-added chemicals via direct nonoxidative reactions presents a compelling alternative to flaring. However, traditional thermal reactor systems face challenges due to thermodynamic limitations and poor catalyst stability. Microwave-assisted reactions offer a sustainable, on-demand approach for chemical production from natural gas, suitable for compact, flexible reactor systems at the well-site that can be powered by renewable energy. This method offers a novel, non-traditional approach in catalyst activation and product selectivity compared to a conventional thermal method, potentially leading to faster rates, higher selectivities, and higher conversion efficiencies. Despite these advantages, challenges exist, such as the low microwave-sensitivity of the state-of-the-art zeolite catalyst that is highly active for the methane dehydroaromatization reaction. This presentation will discuss recent research from the National Energy Technology Laboratory concerning microwave-assisted natural gas conversion directly into aromatics. It will address the difficulties with microwave heating of traditional thermochemical catalysts, and the application of Multiphysics modeling to understand temperature and field strength in the reactor, to enhance chemical conversion. The presentation will also cover how heating aids can mitigate heating challenges and transform microwave catalysis into a quasi-thermal kinetic problem. Additionally, catalyst activation and deactivation under microwave conditions will be examined, along with the future outlook and needs for microwave enhanced catalysis applications.

catalysis↗
DOE OSTI2026

Beyond Thermal Limits: Manipulating Reactive Intermediate Coverages and Turnover Rates via Visible Photon-Mediated Catalysis on Rh-Doped Perovskite Oxides

Catalyst behavior depends on surface adsorbate energetics that are constrained by scaling relationships on metal surfaces. External stimuli (e.g., photons), however, can disrupt these limitations by modulating key intermediate coverages via non-thermal reaction pathways. Here, low-energy visible photon fluxes are utilized to selectively control coverages of strongly bound intermediates on isolated Rh active sites doped within a semiconductor perovskite oxide host (SrTiO 3 ). Red light (632 nm) facilitates selective photolytic CO desorption from rhodium gem-dicarbonyl (Rh(CO) 2 ) species that are ubiquitous reaction intermediates, including for the probe reaction studied herein CO oxidation to CO 2 . Thermochemical CO 2 formation rates (408 K) on Rh-doped SrTiO 3 are limited by adsorbed CO, exhibiting a negative apparent CO rate order (−0.6) and a positive O 2 rate order (+0.4). Arrhenius analyses, anaerobic CO oxidation measurements, and in situ spectroscopies assert that, thermochemically, lattice oxygens from the doped perovskite contribute to CO 2 formation rates. Notably, under red light illumination (0.76–2.02 W cm –2 ), the apparent CO rate order shifts to positive (+1). This, combined with decreasing apparent activation energies and CO coverages (wavelength-agnostic) with increasing photon flux, indicates that photons act selectively toward driving Rh(CO) 2 photolysis, even within complex reaction networks, thereby enhancing Rh accessibility, O 2 dissociation, and consequent rates. Finally, low-energy red light enables more stoichiometric feeds, leading to 650% higher CO 2 rates than those achieved thermally. Overall, this work elucidates how low-energy light can be leveraged, not just to improve reaction rates, but to selectively affect rates of individual elementary steps and key intermediate coverages, thereby breaking conventional scaling relationships that limit thermal catalyst performance.

catalysts↗
DOE OSTI2026

Thermally Stable Co@C3N4 Single-Atom Catalysts for CO Oxidation: Atomic-Level Insights into Structure and Activity

Single Co atoms supported on C3N4 (Co@C3N4) have demonstrated high activity and selectivity in photocatalysis. However, the investigation of structure–function relationships and reaction mechanisms under photocatalytic conditions is very challenging due to the complex conditions of light absorption, charge transfer, and catalysis. In this study, we employed thermal CO oxidation as a prototypical probe reaction to benchmark the intrinsic catalytic performance and track the active-site evolution of Co@C3N4. Single Co atoms were identified and shown to be the catalytically active sites for CO oxidation based on control experiments and isotope-labeling experiments. The Co sites remained atomically dispersed before, during, and after the reaction with temperatures up to 400 °C, as established by in situ X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) combined with density functional theory (DFT), FDMNES simulations, and dynamic-time-warping (DTW)-assisted X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) matching. Together with theoretical calculations, the integrated analysis reveals a stable coordination environment under reaction conditions, which correlates with sustained activity, establishing Co@C3N4 single-atom catalysts as thermally stable CO oxidation catalysts. Beyond these findings, the current study provides a workflow for unambiguously assigning active sites in Co@C3N4 for thermal CO oxidation. This workflow will aid the understanding of their behavior in photocatalysis in the future, where light-driven dynamics obscure direct structure–function links. Notably, this study provides fundamental insights for the rational design of robust single-atom catalysts and a foundation for the broader application of Co@C3N4 catalysts in oxidation reactions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Nanocluster Active Sites Formed on Heterogeneous Thermal Catalysts and Electrocatalysts by Operando Reactive Environments

Here, in this Viewpoint, we summarize our recent studies in this endeavor, ending with a forward-looking perspective into the remaining challenges and open questions for consideration by the catalysis community. Through a computationally efficient framework of systematically investigating metal atom ejection from and migration onto metal surfaces, leading to the formation of metal atom clusters, we show that the surface of a metal catalyst is dynamic and much less rigid than previously thought. We suggest that the operando formed metal atom clusters are novel active sites, which can dominate the activity of steps or kinks (let aside terraces) from where their constituent atoms were ejected. Through more readily responding to reaction conditions by forming catalytically active clusters, solid metal catalysts approach not only homogeneous catalyst motifs, thus establishing a bridge between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis, but also liquid metals which have been suggested to be better than traditional heterogeneous catalysts.

adsorption↗
DOE OSTI2024

Catalytic enhancement in the performance of the microscopic two-stroke heat engine

Here we consider a model of heat engine operating in the microscopic regime: the two-stroke engine. It produces work and exchanges heat in two discrete strokes that are separated in time. The working body of the engine consists of two d-level systems initialized in thermal states at two distinct temperatures. Additionally, an auxiliary nonequilibrium system called catalyst may be incorporated with the working body of the engine, provided the state of the catalyst remains unchanged after the completion of a thermodynamic cycle. This ensures that the work produced by the engine arises solely from the temperature difference. Upon establishing the rigorous thermodynamic framework, we characterize twofold improvement stemming from the inclusion of a catalyst. Firstly, we prove that in the noncatalytic scenario, the optimal efficiency of the two-stroke heat engine with a working body composed of two-level systems is given by the Otto efficiency, which can be surpassed by incorporating a catalyst with the working body. Secondly, we show that incorporating a catalyst allows the engine to operate in frequency and temperature regimes that are not accessible for noncatalytic two-stroke engines. We conclude with a general conjecture about the advantage brought by a catalyst: including the catalyst with the working body always allows to improve efficiency over the noncatalytic scenario for any microscopic two-stroke heat engines. We prove this conjecture for two-stroke engines where the working body is composed of two d-level systems initialized in thermal states at two distinct temperatures, as long as the final joint state leading to optimal efficiency in the noncatalytic scenario is not a product state, or at least one of the d-level system is not thermal.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2025

State of the Art in Thermal Catalytic Upgrading of Biomass and Biomass-Derived Intermediates

Biomass-derived energy sources represent a promising domestic route for fuel and chemical production, taking advantage of largely underutilized biological and waste resources. Heterogeneous catalysis plays a key role in these biomass conversion processes, as reflected by all American Society for Testing and Materials–approved pathways for producing sustainable aviation fuel proceeding through a catalytic step. This concise review seeks to establish the state of the art in thermal catalytic process development for various biomass-derived feedstocks and the current enabling capabilities that aid this development. Research needs are identified and described throughout the article, as further advancements in heterogeneous catalysis are required to improve the affordability and realize the full potential of biomass-derived products.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Distinct Kinetic Signatures of Photodesorption from Metal Nanoparticles

Visible photon fluxes can influence the rate and selectivity of heterogeneously catalyzed reactions on metal nanoparticle surfaces. Models describing the influence of photon fluxes have typically introduced photon flux dependent apparent thermal kinetic parameters (reaction orders, activation energies, binding energies, etc.). This has relied on empirical fitting of reaction rate data, making mechanistic interpretations of how photon fluxes influence elementary step rates challenging and inconsistent with fundamental descriptions of photochemistry on metal surfaces developed from surface science studies. Using the CO adsorption–desorption quasi-equilibrium reaction on Pt/Al 2 O 3 catalysts as a model system, we measured steady state adsorbed CO (CO*) coverages under isothermal and isobaric (1 mbar CO) conditions as a function of temperature (473–573 K) and of 440 nm photon flux ((0.1–5.2) × 10 3 # hv Pt site –1 s –1 ) using in situ IR spectroscopy. Steady state CO* coverage on Pt was photon flux dependent with increasing photon flux causing decreasing coverage, consistent with photons driving CO* desorption rates faster than thermal CO* desorption rates. However, photon flux dependent CO* coverages were essentially temperature independent, inconsistent with models that describe photon effects using perturbations to apparent thermal kinetic parameters. Instead, 120 steady state CO* coverages as a function of temperature and photon flux are quantitatively described by a kinetic model in which the overall desorption rate is a summation of independent thermal and photon induced CO* desorption rates. Site-resolved analysis reveals distinct kinetic parameters for photon driven desorption of CO* from well-coordinated, under-coordinated, and highly under-coordinated Pt sites, with temperature-dependent apparent quantum efficiencies (AQE) consistent with temperature dependence of vibrational quanta distribution of adsorbed CO. The rigorous kinetic rate laws for independent photon and thermal driven pathways allow for predictive modeling of the influence of photon fluxes on the rates of CO* desorption under catalytic conditions. Further, the analysis provides evidence that steady state continuous wave photon fluxes can drive desorption/adsorption reactions on metal surfaces out of thermal equilibrium, reconciling surface science observations of molecular photodesorption with applied catalysis. The work establishes a general kinetic framework to be considered for photon driven processes on metals, and defines catalyst, reaction, and photon flux characteristic design principles for breaking Sabatier limitations.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Vapor-phase pillarization of MXenes for engineering hierarchical interlayer porosity

MXenes, a family of two-dimensional (2D) multilamellar materials, possess excellent thermal and electronic properties for a range of applications. Their use in heterogeneous catalysis, however, is limited by the low surface area resulting from stacked layers. Pillarization with inorganic oxides can create more open, mesoporous MXene structures, improving accessibility for guest species to diffuse, reside or react in the space between 2D layers. A previous liquid-phase pillarization method, however, involves excessive use of solvent-based precursors and multiple processing steps. Here, we report a vapor-phase pillarization (VPP) strategy to introduce pillars, exemplified by silica pillars, with high pillar precursor usage efficiency and a simplified processing workflow. The resulting silica-pillared mesoporous MXene exhibits significantly increased surface area and porosity. These textural properties can be easily tuned by the VPP synthesis conditions. When applied as a ruthenium (Ru) catalyst support for the hydrogenolysis of low-density polyethylene (LDPE), the silica-pillared MXene enabled high Ru dispersion and catalytic activity. This study highlights the potential of the VPP method for engineering mesoporous, 2D MXene materials and demonstrates the effectiveness of mesoporous MXene as a catalyst support in overcoming mass transport and active-site accessibility challenges in heterogeneous catalysis involving bulky substances, such as plastics upcycling.

Luo, Song [University of Delaware, Newark, DE (Uni↗
DOE OSTI2026

Solubility-limited depolymerization kinetics in the glycolysis of carbonyl-containing polymers

Chemical recycling of condensation polymers is often rationalized on the basis of the intrinsic reactivity of ester and carbonate functional groups. However, under heterogeneous conditions relevant to plastic waste processing and environmental degradation, bulk depolymerization rates often diverge from trends predicted by homogeneous chemistry. Here, we investigate how polymer–solvent compatibility, catalyst strength, and phase behavior govern the heterogeneous glycolysis of carbonyl-containing polymers. Using poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), glycol-modified PET (PETG), and bisphenol-A polycarbonate (PC) as model systems, we examine depolymerization kinetics at 180 °C with ethylene glycol and bisphenol A as diols under both amphoteric organosalt (TBD : MSA) and strong base (TBD) catalysis. Despite substantial differences in crystallinity and glycol uptake, PET and PETG depolymerize at comparable rates under organosalt catalysis, while PC depolymerizes significantly more slowly under identical conditions. Time-resolved molecular weight analysis and thermal characterization demonstrate that these rate differences do not arise from crystallinity, swelling, or inherent carbonyl reactivity, but instead reflect solubility-limited kinetics that constrain the transition from heterogeneous to homogeneous reaction regimes. When polymer solubility is low, depolymerization remains heterogeneous and slow; when solubility is enhanced—either through increased polymer–diol compatibility or stronger base catalysis—rapid homogeneous depolymerization is observed, reversing apparent reactivity trends. These results establish solubility and phase behavior as primary determinants of depolymerization kinetics in heterogeneous polymer recycling systems. By demonstrating how catalyst selection and solvent compatibility can expose or overcome solubility limitations, this work provides mechanistic insight to design more energy-efficient and selective chemical recycling processes. More broadly, these findings suggest that polymers with limited solvent or water compatibility may resist chemical degradation in the environment, favoring fragmentation and persistence as micro- and nanoplastics. Understanding solubility-controlled depolymerization offers a pathway toward more sustainable polymer design and end-of-life chemical recovery.

Watson-Sanders, Shelby [Department of Chemistry, U↗
DOE OSTI2025

Boosting Hydrogenation of CO 2 Using Cationic Cu Atomically Dispersed on 2D γ‐Al 2 O 3 Nanosheets

The continuous development of novel catalytic approaches is crucial for advancing efficient CO 2 hydrogenation processes. Drawing inspiration from single-atom catalysis and 2D materials, we designed a new 2D single-atom catalyst with excellent thermal stability by thermally treating Cu-adsorbed γ-AlOOH nanosheets, which yielded a Cu/γ-Al 2 O 3 catalyst with high activity in the hydrogenation of CO 2 -yielding methanol (CH 3 OH), dimethyl ether (DME), and CO as products. The active Cu sites are monodispersed and highly stable due to their cationic oxidation state and their substitution for pentacoordinated aluminum (Al P ) sites on particle surfaces. This study demonstrates an efficient approach for achieving a high CO 2 hydrogenation rate (30.45 mol mol −1 h −1 ) using a catalyst system that lacks metallic Cu centers, traditionally considered essential for H₂ dissociation, and employs what was previously thought to be an inert metal oxide (γ-Al 2 O 3 ) for CO and CH 3 OH production. Ongoing mechanistic studies aim to elucidate the synergy between cationic Cu single atoms and γ-Al 2 O 3 , a Lewis acid support, in facilitating hydrogen (H 2 ) activation and methanol formation.

2D catalyst↗