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DOE OSTI2025

Expected tracking performance of the ATLAS Inner Tracker at the High-Luminosity LHC

The high-luminosity phase of LHC operations (HL-LHC), will feature a large increase in simultaneous proton-proton interactions per bunch crossing up to 200, compared with a typical leveling target of 64 in Run 3. Such an increase will create a very challenging environment in which to perform charged particle trajectory reconstruction, a task crucial for the success of the ATLAS physics program, and will exceed the capabilities of the current ATLAS Inner Detector (ID). A new all-silicon Inner Tracker (ITk) will replace the current ID in time for the start of the HL-LHC. To ensure successful use of the ITk capabilities in Run 4 and beyond, the ATLAS tracking software has been successfully adapted to achieve state-of-the-art track reconstruction in challenging high-luminosity conditions with the ITk detector. This paper presents the expected tracking performance of the ATLAS ITk based on the latest available developments since the ITk technical design reports.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2020

Experimental study of different silicon sensor options for the upgrade of the CMS Outer Tracker

During the high-luminosity phase of the LHC (HL-LHC), planned to start in 2027, the accelerator is expected to deliver an instantaneous peak luminosity of up to 7.5×10 34 cm –2 s –1 . A total integrated luminosity of 3000 or even 4000 fb –1 is foreseen to be delivered to the general purpose detectors ATLAS and CMS over a decade, thereby increasing the discovery potential of the LHC experiments significantly. The CMS detector will undergo a major upgrade for the HL-LHC,with entirely new tracking detectors consisting of an Outer Tracker and Inner Tracker. However, the new tracking system will be exposed to a significantly higher radiation than the current tracker, requiring new radiation-hard sensors. CMS initiated an extensive irradiation and measurement campaign starting in 2009 to systematically compare the properties of different silicon materials and design choices for the Outer Tracker sensors. Several test structures and sensors were designed and implemented on 18 different combinations of wafer materials, thicknesses, and production technologies. The devices were electrically characterized before and after irradiation with neutrons,and with protons of different energies, with fluences corresponding to those expected at different radii of the CMS Outer Tracker after 3000 fb –1 . The tests performed include studies with β sources, lasers, and beam scans. This paper compares the performance of different options for the HL-LHC silicon sensors with a focus on silicon bulk material and thickness.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2020

FPGA-based tracking for the CMS Level-1 trigger using the tracklet algorithm

The high instantaneous luminosities expected following the upgrade of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) to the High-Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) pose major experimental challenges for the CMS experiment. A central component to allow efficient operation under these conditions is the reconstruction of charged particle trajectories and their inclusion in the hardware based trigger system. There are many challenges involved in achieving this: a large input data rate of about 20–40 Tb/s; processing a new batch of input data every 25 ns, each consisting of about 15,000 precise position measurements and rough transverse momentum measurements of particles (“stubs”); performing the pattern recognition on these stubs to find the trajectories; and producing the list of trajectory parameters within 4 µs. Here, this paper describes a proposed solution to this problem, specifically, it presents a novel approach to pattern recognition and charged particle trajectory reconstruction using an all-FPGA solution. The results of an end-to-end demonstrator system, based on Xilinx Virtex-7 FPGAs, that meets timing and performance requirements are presented along with a further improved, optimized version of the algorithm together with its corresponding expected performance.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Characterization of the CMS Endcap Timing Layer readout chip prototype with charge injection

We present the characterization of a readout Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) for the CMS Endcap Timing Layer (ETL) of the High-Luminosity LHC upgrade with charge injection. The ASIC, named ETROC and developed in a 65 nm CMOS technology, reads out a 16× 16 pixel matrix of the Low-Gain Avalanche Detector (LGAD). The jitter contribution from ETROC is required to be below 40 ps to achieve the 50 ps overall time resolution per hit. The analog readout circuits in ETROC consist of the preamplifier and the discriminator. The preamplifier handles the LGAD charge signal with the most probable value of around 15 fC. The discriminator generates the digital pulse, which provides the Time-Of-Arrival (TOA, leading edge) and Time-Over-Threshold (TOT, pulse width) information. The prototype of ETROC (ETROC0) that implements a single channel of analog readout circuits has been evaluated with charge injection. The jitter of the analog readout circuits, measured from the discriminator's leading edge, is better than 16 ps for a charge larger than 15 fC with the sensor capacitance. The time walk resulting from different pulse heights can be corrected using the TOT measurement. The time resolution distribution has a standard deviation of 29 ps after the time-walk correction from the charge injection. At room temperature, the preamplifier's power consumption is measured to be 0.74 mW and 1.53 mW per pixel in the low- and high-power mode, respectively. Finally, the measured power consumption of the discriminator is 0.84 mW per pixel. With the ASIC alone or the LGAD sensor, The characterization performances fulfill the ETL's challenging requirements.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2021

Lycoris - A large-area, high resolution beam telescope

We note that a high-resolution beam telescope is one of the most important and demanding infrastructure components at any test beam facility. Its main purpose is to provide reference particle tracks from the incoming test beam particles to the test beam users, which allows measurement of the performance of the device-under-test (DUT). LYCORIS, a six-plane compact beam telescope with an active area of ~ 10 x 10 cm 2 (extensible to 10 x 20 cm 2 ) was installed at the DESY II Test Beam Facility in 2019, to provide a precise momentum measurement in a 1 T solenoid magnet or to provide tracking over a large area. The overall design of Lycoris will be described as well as the performance of the chosen silicon sensor. The 25 μm pitch micro-strip sensor used for Lycoris was originally designed for the SiD detector concept for the International Linear Collider. It adopts a second metallization layer to route signals from strips to the bump-bonded KPiX ASIC and uses a wire-bonded flex cable for the connection to the DAQ and the power supply system. This arrangement eliminates the need for a dedicated hybrid PCB. Its performance was tested for the first time in this project. The system has been evaluated at the DESY II Test Beam Facility in several test-beam campaigns and has demonstrated an average single-point resolution of 7.07 μm.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Comparative evaluation of analogue front-end designs for the CMS Inner Tracker at the High Luminosity LHC

The CMS Inner Tracker, made of silicon pixel modules, will be entirely replaced prior to the start of the High Luminosity LHC period. One of the crucial components of the new Inner Tracker system is the readout chip, being developed by the RD53 Collaboration, and in particular its analogue front-end, which receives the signal from the sensor and digitizes it. Three different analogue front-ends (Synchronous, Linear, and Differential) were designed and implemented in the RD53A demonstrator chip. A dedicated evaluation program was carried out to select the most suitable design to build a radiation tolerant pixel detector able to sustain high particle rates with high efficiency and a small fraction of spurious pixel hits. The test results showed that all three analogue front-ends presented strong points, but also limitations. The Differential front-end demonstrated very low noise, but the threshold tuning became problematic after irradiation. Moreover, a saturation in the preamplifier feedback loop affected the return of the signal to baseline and thus increased the dead time. The Synchronous front-end showed very good timing performance, but also higher noise. For the Linear front-end all of the parameters were within specification, although this design had the largest time walk. This limitation was addressed and mitigated in an improved design. The analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the three front-ends in the context of the CMS Inner Tracker operation requirements led to the selection of the improved design Linear front-end for integration in the final CMS readout chip.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2022

Comparison of measurement and simulation of ATLAS cavern radiation background

Sixteen Medipix2 pixel detector based (MPX) devices were operated at various positions within the ATLAS detector and cavern continuously from early 2008 up to 2013. In addition to photons, each MPX detector is capable to detect charged particles, and neutrons as it is covered with a mask of converter materials dividing its area into regions sensitive to thermal or fast neutrons. The MPX detector network was effectively used for real-time measurements of the spectral characteristics and composition of complex radiation fields in ATLAS. This article reports comparison of the results of measurements performed with MPX detectors during the LHC operation period in 2010 and 2011 with Monte Carlo simulations results from the FLUGG and GCALOR codes. For the purpose of this comparison, the MPX detectors were operated in tracking mode with low threshold (8–10 keV) allowing one to distinguish among particle categories based on the recognition of track patterns left by the particles in the MPX sensitive layer. The comparison of measurements with simulations shows that the agreement between measured and simulated data is satisfactory in most cases within a factor of two.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Characterization of BNL and HPK AC-LGAD sensors with a 120 GeV proton beam

We present measurements of AC-LGADs performed at the Fermilab's test beam facility using 120 GeV protons. Here we studied the performance of various strip and pad AC-LGAD sensors that were produced by BNL and HPK. The measurements are performed with our upgraded test beam setup that utilizes a high precision telescope tracker, and a simultaneous readout of up to 7 channels per sensor, which allows detailed studies of signal sharing characteristics. These measurements allow us to assess the differences in designs between different manufacturers, and optimize them based on experimental performance. We then study several reconstruction algorithms to optimize position and time resolutions that utilize the signal sharing properties of each sensor. We present a world's first demonstration of silicon sensors in a test beam that simultaneously achieve better than 6–10 μm position and 30 ps time resolution. This represents a substantial improvement to the spatial resolution than would be obtained with binary readout of sensors with similar pitch.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Beam test performance of a prototype module with Short Strip ASICs for the CMS HL-LHC tracker upgrade

The Short Strip ASIC (SSA) is one of the four front-end chips designed for the upgrade of the CMS Outer Tracker for the High Luminosity LHC. Together with the Macro-Pixel ASIC (MPA) it will instrument modules containing a strip and a macro-pixel sensor stacked on top of each other. The SSA provides both full readout of the strip hit information when triggered, and, together with the MPA, correlated clusters called stubs from the two sensors for use by the CMS Level-1 (L1) trigger system. Results from the first prototype module consisting of a sensor and two SSA chips are presented. The prototype module has been characterized at the Fermilab Test Beam Facility using a 120 GeV proton beam.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2022

Pre-production results from ATLAS ITk Strip Sensors Quality Assurance Testchip

The production of strip sensors within the framework of the ATLAS Inner Tracker (ITk) development is a process which requires continuous evaluation during the full production period (about 4 years). Such an evaluation is divided into two different parts: Quality Control (QC), which focuses on the final product (the actual sensors) and tries to identify possible defects once the fabrication is completed, and Quality Assurance (QA), which aims to prevent deviations in the manufacturing process and uses specifically-designed test structures. The initial sensor pre-production consists of 5% (1041 sensors) of the total number of sensors expected during production. As part of pre-production, the collaboration has measured key parameters from miniature strip sensors (minis), monitor diodes (MD8), and the ATLAS Testchip, before and after irradiation. In this contribution we focus on the analysis of the results of the MD8 and the Testchip. All parameters have been obtained from the test structures (MD8, bias resistors, interdigitated structures, field oxide capacitors, coupling capacitors, punch-through protection structures and cross-bridge resistors) measured at the different test sites (KEK/Tsukuba, Birmingham, Toronto, Ljubljana, Valencia, Carleton, Prague, CNM-Barcelona). The results are compared to predefined pre- and post-irradiation specifications for each tested parameter.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Establishing the Quality Assurance programme for the strip sensor production of the ATLAS tracker upgrade including irradiation with neutrons, photons and protons to HL-LHC fluences

The successful pre-production delivery of strip sensors for the new Inner Tracker (ITk) for the upgraded ATLAS detector at the High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) at CERN was completed and based on their performance full production has commenced. The overall delivery period is anticipated to last 4 years to complete the approximately 22000 sensors required for the ITk. For Quality Assurance (QA), a number of test structures designed by the collaboration, along with a large area diode and miniature version of the main sensor, are produced in every wafer by the foundry Hamamatsu Photonics K.K (HPK). As well as Quality Control (QC) checks on every main sensor, samples of the QA pieces from each delivery batch are tested both before and after irradiation with results after exposure to neutrons, gammas or protons to fluences and doses corresponding to those anticipated after operation at the HL-LHC to roughly 1.5 times the ultimate integrated luminosity of 4000 fb -1 . In this paper the procedures are presented and the studies carried out to establish that the seven ITk QA Strip Sensor irradiation and test sites meet all the requirements to support this very extensive programme throughout the strip sensor production phase for the ITk project.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Neutron irradiation and electrical characterisation of the first 8” silicon pad sensor prototypes for the CMS calorimeter endcap upgrade

As part of its HL-LHC upgrade program, the CMS collaboration is replacing its existing endcap calorimeters with a high-granularity calorimeter (CE). The new calorimeter is a sampling calorimeter with unprecedented transverse and longitudinal readout for both electromagnetic and hadronic compartments. Due to its compactness, intrinsic time resolution, and radiation hardness, silicon has been chosen as active material for the regions exposed to higher radiation levels. The silicon sensors are fabricated as 20 cm (8”) wide hexagonal wafers and are segmented into several hundred pads which are read out individually. As part of the sensor qualification strategy, 8” sensor irradiation with neutrons has been conducted at the Rhode Island Nuclear Science Center (RINSC) and followed by their electrical characterisation in 2020-21. The completion of this important milestone in the CE's R&D program is documented in this paper and it provides detailed account of the associated infrastructure and procedures.The results on the electrical properties of the irradiated CE silicon sensors are presented.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2023

Evaluation of planar silicon pixel sensors with the RD53A readout chip for the Phase-2 Upgrade of the CMS Inner Tracker

The Large Hadron Collider at CERN will undergo an upgrade inorder to increase its luminosity to7.5 × 10$^{34}$ cm$^{-2}$s$^{-1}$. The increased luminosityduring this High-Luminosity running phase, starting around 2029,means a higher rate of proton-proton interactions, hence a largerionizing dose and particle fluence for the detectors. The currenttracking system of the CMS experiment will be fully replaced inorder to cope with the new operating conditions. Prototype planarpixel sensors for the CMS Inner Tracker with square50 μm × 50 μm and rectangular100 μm × 25 μm pixels read out by theRD53A chip were characterized in the lab and at the DESY-II testbeamfacility in order to identify designs that meet the requirements ofCMS during the High-Luminosity running phase. A spatial resolutionof approximately 3.4 μm (2 μm) is obtained using themodules with 50 μm × 50 μm(100 μm × 25 μm) pixels at the optimalangle of incidence before irradiation. After irradiation to a 1 MeVneutron equivalent fluence ofΦ$_{eq}$ = 5.3 × 10$^{15}$ cm$^{-2}$, a resolution of9.4 μm is achieved at a bias voltage of 800 V using a modulewith 50 μm × 50 μm pixel size. All modulesretain a hit efficiency in excess of 99% after irradiation tofluences up to 2.1 × 10$^{16}$ cm$^{-2}$. Further studies ofthe electrical properties of the modules, especially crosstalk, arealso presented in this paper.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

AstroPix4 — a novel HV-CMOS sensor developed for space based experiments

For the proposed space based gamma-ray observatory All-sky Medium-Energy Gamma-ray Observatory eXplorer (AMEGO-X), a silicon tracker based on a novel High Voltage-CMOS (HV-CMOS) sensor called AstroPix, is currently being developed. Preliminary measurements with the first full reticle prototype AstroPix3 show that the power target of 1.5 mW/cm 2 can currently not be reached due to the digital consumption of 3.08 mW/cm 2 , while the analog power consumption of 1.04 mW/cm 2 and a break down voltage of over 350 V look promising. Based on these results, the design changes in AstroPix4, submitted in May 2023, are presented, containing changes to the time stamp generation and readout architecture. A digital power consumption below 0.25 mW/cm 2 is expected by removing the fast 200 MHz clock used to measure the time-over-threshold (ToT) and an LVDS receiver. A maximum resolution of 3.125 ns for time-of-arrival (ToA) and ToT is reached by adding per-pixel Flash-Time-to-Digital Converter (TDCs) controlled by a global delay-locked loop (DLL).

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2024

The CMOS Pseudo-Thyristor: a zero-static current discriminator circuit

We report a very low power discriminator circuit for pixelized detectors, called the Pseudo-Thyristor is described in this document. It is a positive feedback topology using regular PMOS and NMOS field-effect transistors (FET's) with zero static current. When a small charge is injected into the circuit, it flips rapidly due to the positive feedback and outputs a logic transition for further digitization. Simulation shows that in a 65 nm process, it is possible to achieve a detecting threshold below 5 fC while maintain the average power consumption below 10 micro-Watts when the hit occupancy is <10% for 40 MHz operation.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2024

How the discovery of Cold Noise delayed the production of ATLAS ITk strip tracker modules by a year

Here, the construction of the ATLAS strip tracker barrel will require the assembly of 12,000 barrel detector modules over the course of 3.5 years. In 2022, during the module pre-production phase, modules were found to display clusters of noisy channels outside required specifications when tested at operating temperatures (-35°C), called “Cold Noise”. Extensive investigations into the cause and mechanism of Cold Noise interrupted pre-production and occupied most barrel module assembly sites. This contribution presents an overview of the year-long investigations into Cold Noise, the final identification of the underlying mechanism and necessary changes for the transition to production.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Timing Performance of the CMS High Granularity Calorimeter Prototype

This paper describes the experience with the calibration,reconstruction and evaluation of the timing capabilities of the CMSHGCAL prototype in the beam tests in 2018. The calibrationprocedure includes multiple steps and corrections ranging from tensof nanoseconds to a few hundred picoseconds. The timing performanceis studied using signals from positron beam particles with energiesbetween 20 GeV and 300 GeV. The performance is studied as afunction of particle energy against an external timing reference aswell as standalone by comparing the two different halves of theprototype. The timing resolution is found to be 60 ps forsingle-channel measurements and better than 20 ps for full showersat the highest energies, setting excellent perspectives for theHGCAL calorimeter performance at the HL-LHC.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Measurement of the fractional radiation length of a pixel module for the CMS Phase-2 upgrade via the multiple scattering of positrons

High-luminosity particle collider experiments such as theones planned at the High-Luminosity Large Hadron Collider requireever-greater vertexing precision of the tracking detectors,necessitating reductions in the material budget of the detectors.Traditionally, the fractional radiation length (x/X$_{0}$) ofdetectors is either estimated using known properties of theconstituent materials, or measured in dedicated runs of the finaldetector. In this paper, we present a method of direct measurementof the material budget of a CMS prototype module designed for thePhase-2 upgrade of the CMS detector using a 40–65 MeV positronbeam. A total of 630 million events were collected at the PaulScherrer Institut PiE1 experimental area using a three-planetelescope consisting of the prototype module as the central plane,surrounded by two MALTA monolithic pixel detectors. Fractionalradiation lengths were extracted from scattering angle distributionsusing the Highland approximation for multiple scattering. Astatistical technique recovered runs suffering from triggerdesynchronisation, and several corrections were introduced tocompensate for local inefficiencies related to geometric and beamshape constraints. Two regions of the module were surveyed andyielded average x/X$_{0}$ values of (0.72 ± 0.05)% and(0.95 ± 0.09)%, which are compatible with empirical estimatesfor these regions computed from known material properties of 0.753%and 0.892%, respectively. Two types of higher-granularity maps ofthe fractional radiation length were produced, subdivided eitherinto rectangular regions of uniform size, or polygonal-shapedregions of uniform material composition. The results bode well forthe CMS Phase-2 upgrade modules, which will play a key role in theminimisation of the material of the upgraded detector.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗