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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Laser Forming of Sheet Metal for In-Space Manufacturing Applications

As the in-space economy matures, the migration of typically Earth-bound manufacturing methods, such as metal forming and joining, up to space will be required to meet the increasing demand for refueling and supply depots, habitats, laboratories, lunar surface structures, and sites for deep-space exploration shipbuilding. Only in this way can the magnitude of individual structures begin to exceed what can be launched, deployed, docked, or inflated and allow true economies of scale to be unlocked in space. However, typical terrestrial methods of forming and shaping sheet metal require massive machinery with the ability to deflect reaction forces to a large mass in a fixed reference frame (Earth). To both limit up-mass required for manufacture and to mitigate the issues of reaction forces in the relative reference frames of space, a non-contact, laser-based method of forming metal sheet is proposed. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), in cooperation with DARPA and the University of Florida (UF), have begun investigation of non-contact methods of laser forming sheet metal in thermal vacuum (TVAC) conditions to great success. To date, several grades of aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium coupons have been formed via laser-induced internal stresses in these metals at both ambient atmosphere and vacuum conditions. Temperatures in these tests ranged from -120 to 60 C, and though the total energy required to induce strain does vary with workpiece temperature and environmental pressure, the method remains predictable and controllable for the materials investigated. It is believed that this method will revolutionize manufacturing in-space as it not only continues to build upon the capabilities of the laser (sensing, marking, cutting, drilling, joining, and now forming) as an all-in-one tool, but also reduces the need to counteract forming forces as would be required in mechanical bending. In theory, all required stress to induce bending is generated through thermal gradient and strain within the workpiece, meaning that the need for reaction control and fuel expense on-orbit will be limited. Archimedes once stated, “Give me a lever long enough and a fulcrum on which to place it, and I shall move the world”. With a laser as our lever and our workpiece its own fulcrum, we can move the world’s manufacturing into space.

Laser↗
NASA NTRS1977

The Chemical Composition of the Cores of the Terrestrial Planets and the Moon

Using models of the quasi-chemical theory of solutions, the activity coefficients of silicon are calculated in the melts Fe-Si, Ni-Si, and Fe-Ni-Si. The calculated free energies of solution of liquid nickel and silicon in liquid iron in the interval 0 to 1400 kbar and 1500 to 4000 K, shows that Fe-Ni-Si alloy is stable under the conditions of the outer core of the Earth and the cores of the terrestrial planets. The oxidation-reduction conditions are studied, and the fugacity of oxygen in the mantles of the planets and at the core-mantle boundary are calculated. The mechanism of reduction of silicon is analyzed over a broad interval of P and T. The interaction between the matter of the core and mantle is studied, resulting in the extraction of silicon from the mantle and its solution in the material of the core. It is concluded that silicon can enter into the composition of the outer core of the Earth and Venus, but probably does not enter into the composition of the cores of Mercury, Mars, and the Moon, if in fact the latter possesses one.

O L Kuskov↗
DOE OSTI2026

Lake sediment heatwaves under global warming

Lake sediment heatwaves, driven by rising global temperatures, pose emerging threats to freshwater ecosystems by altering sediment thermal regimes and intensifying sediment biogeochemical processes. Here we present a global-scale assessment of lake sediment heatwaves, examining their historical patterns and projecting future trends under various climate scenarios in 41,499 representative lakes worldwide. Using daily simulated lake sediment temperatures from 1981 to 2010 and future (2071-2100) projections under three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP126, SSP370, SSP585), we investigate lake sediment heatwave characteristics, including their duration, intensity, frequency, and seasonal timing, worldwide. Our results show that lake sediment heatwaves are generally more persistent and frequent than lake surface heatwaves, with sediment heatwaves in pelagic regions experiencing a significant lag relative to surface conditions. Under future climate scenarios, sediment heatwaves are projected to intensify, with their duration and frequency increasing substantially, particularly under SSP585. These shifts could exacerbate the production of greenhouse gases like methane and increase sediment respiration rates in lakes. This study highlights the need to account for sediment heatwaves in freshwater ecosystem management and climate adaptation strategies to mitigate future impacts.

Limnology↗
NASA NTRS1967

Space Programs Summary 37-43, Vol. VI, Space Exploration Programs and Space Sciences For the Period November 1 to December 31, 1966

The Space Programs Summary is a six-volume bimonthly publication designed to report on JPL space exploration programs and related supporting research and advanced development projects. The titles of all volumes of the Space Programs Summary are: Vol. I. The Lunar Program (Confidential) Vol. 11. The Planetary-Interplanetary Program (Confidential) Vol. 111. The Deep Space Network (Unclassified) Vol. IV. Supporting Research and Advanced Development (Unclassified) Vol. V. Supporting Research and Advanced Development (Confidential) Vol. VI. Space Exploration Programs and Space Sciences (Unclassified) The Space Programs Summary, Vol. VI, consists of: an unclassified digest of appropriate material from Vols. I, II, and III; an original presentation of the JPL quality assurance and reliability efforts, and the environmental- and dynamic-testing facility-development activities; and a reprint of the space science instrumentation studies of Vols. I and 11. This instrumentation work is conducted by the JPL Space Sciences Division and also by individuals of various colleges, universities, and other organizations. All such projects are supported by the Laboratory and are concerned with the development of instruments for use in the NASA space flight programs.

MARINER PROGRAM↗
DOE OSTI2025

Symmetry‐Breaking Strategy Yields Dopant‐Free Small Molecule Hole Transport Materials for Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells with 20.58% Efficiency and Outstanding Stability

Abstract Inorganic perovskites are known for their excellent photothermal stability; however, the photothermal stability of all‐inorganic n‐i‐p perovskite solar cells (PSCs) is compromised due to ion diffusion and free radical‐induced degradation caused by the use of doped spiro‐OMeTAD hole transport materials (HTMs). In this study, two isomeric donor–acceptor–donor (D–A–D) type small molecules, namely HBT and HiBT, were developed and used as dopant‐free HTMs, using 2,1,3‐benzothiadiazole or benzo[d][1,2,3]thiadiazole as acceptor moieties. The HiBT molecule, with its symmetry‐breaking features, exhibits a large dipole moment, enhanced coordination‐active sites, and a well‐aligned energy level structure, all of which contribute to passivating perovskite surface defects and improving free charge separation. As a result, inorganic CsPbI 3 PSCs with HiBT HTM achieved an impressive power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 20.58%, the highest reported for dopant‐free HTM‐based inorganic PSCs. Moreover, the enhanced hydrophobic properties of HiBT molecules, coupled with their ability to passivate perovskite surface defects, contribute to significantly improved device stability. The unencapsulated devices based on HiBT HTM retained over 83% and 80% of their initial efficiency after being stored at 85 °C for 50 days and undergoing maximum power point (MPP) tracking at 85 °C for 1100 h, respectively. These results highlight that the symmetry‐breaking strategy is an exceptionally effective approach for designing efficient, dopant‐free small molecule HTMs, significantly contributing to both the high efficiency and enhanced stability of all‐inorganic PSCs.

Chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2025

Crystal Growth Scale-Up and Stability of RbSr 2 X 5 :Eu Scintillators

The discovery and development of new scintillation materials support national security needs. In these applications, large volumes of scintillator crystals are needed to achieve efficient screening for contraband. Therefore, one important step in the discovery of new scintillator compositions is testing their feasibility for scale-up and their stability. In this work, high-quality Ø22 mm crystals of two new scintillators RbSr 2 Br 5 :Eu and RbSr 2 I 5 :Eu were grown via the Vertical Bridgman method, and their scintillation properties were characterized. Here, the Ø22 mm RbSr 2 I 5 :Eu crystals could be grown with fast translation rates up to 3.5 mm/h. Both RbSr 2 Br 5 :Eu and RbSr 2 I 5 :Eu had high scintillation performance, including light yields of 46,000 and 61,000 ph/MeV, respectively, for Ø22 × 35 mm crystals. Additionally, properties related to physical stability were investigated, including the coefficients of thermal expansion via high-temperature X-ray diffraction (HTXRD) as well as moisture sensitivity. HTXRD confirmed the absence of solid–solid phase transitions and showed that RbSr 2 Br 5 had minimal thermal expansion anisotropy compared to RbSr 2 I 5 and some other inorganic metal halide scintillators, which favors the growth of large-sized crystals.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Semi-Dynamic Leach Testing of Densified Silicon-based Iodine Waste Forms

Iodine waste forms (IWF) require a conceptual corrosion release model (CCRM) to provide iodine (I) release rates for performance modeling nuclear waste disposal repositories. To develop a CCRM, an understanding of the corrosion mechanisms of the IWF are required along with data from consistent test methods to parameterize the model. The present study has advanced both areas by providing and assessing the corrosion resistance of IWF types based on their processing history in minor variations of semi-dynamic leach tests. The test included a series of semi-dynamic leach tests using monolithic IWFs in deionized water (leachant). Several experiments were conducted under alternate test conditions with changes to temperature, leachant replacement, leachant pH, leachant volume, masking, and surface finish to elucidate if varying these conditions impacted IWF corrosion behavior. Tests were conducted on two classes of IWFs: (1) I-bearing silver-mordenite (AgZ) materials processed by hot isostatic pressing (HIP) at different temperatures, pressures, sizes, and times; and (2) I-bearing silver-functionalized silica aerogels (SFA) processed by either HIP or spark plasma sintering (SPS). The corrosion susceptibility of AgZ samples was influenced by HIP temperature and pressure. The SPS SFAs retained I far better than HIP SFAs. Additional findings in this study include: (1) The iodine dissolution rate decreased with decreasing temperature, (2) a common ion effect may occur and slow dissolution of the host phase if the leachant is not regularly replaced, (3) pH controls the dissolution rate, and (4) the iodine dissolution rate slows with extended test time (up to 224 days). Based on this work, these parameters should thus be represented when developing a CCRM.

corrosion↗
DOE OSTI1995

Nuclear Safety [Vol. 36, No. 1, January-June 1995]

Nuclear Safety is a journal that covers significant issues in the field of nuclear safety. Its primary scope is safety in the design, construction, operation, and decommissioning of nuclear power reactors worldwide and the research and analysis activities that promote this goal, but it also encompasses the safety aspects of the entire nuclear fuel cycle, including fuel fabrication, spent-fuel processing and handling, and nuclear waste disposal, the handling of fissionable materials and radioisotopes, and the environmental effects of all these activities. Table of Contents for this issue follows. THE CHORNOBYL ACCIDENT: 1 The Chornobyl Accident Revisited, Part II: The State of the Nuclear Fuel Located Within the Chornobyl Sarcophagus, A A. Borovoi and A. R. Sich; GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: 33 Nuclear Power Safety in Central and Eastern Europe, R. Wilson; 46 Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors in the Former Eastern European Countries, S. Chakraborty; 53 Technical Note: On the Definition of Common-Cause Failures, H. Paula; ACCIDENT ANALYSIS: 58 Modeling and Analysis of Core-Debris Recriticality During Hypothetical Severe Accidents in the Advanced Neutron Source Reactor, S.-H. Kim, V. Georgevich, D. B. Simpson, C. O. Slater, and R. P. Taleyarkhan; 68 Ignitability of Hydrogen/Oxygen/Diluent Mixtures in the Presence of Hot Surfaces, R. K. Kumar and G. W. Koroll; 94 Coupled RELAP5 and CONTAIN Accident Analysis Using PVM, K. A. Smith, A. J. Baratta, and G. E. Robinson; CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION: 109 Application of Fuzzy Logic in Nuclear Reactor Control Part I: An Assessment of State-of-the-Art, A. S. Heger, N. K. Alang-Rashid, and M. Jamshidi; DESIGN FEATURES: 122 Twenty-Third DOE/NRC Nuclear Air-Cleaning and Treatment Conference, R. R. Bellamy, J. J. Hayes, and M. W. First; ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS: 135 Atmospheric Dispersion and the Radiological Consequences of Normal Airborne Effluents from a Nuclear Power Plant, D. Fang, C. Z. Sun, and L. Yang; 142 Calculation of Distribution Coefficients for Radionuclides in Soils and Sediments, I. Puigdomenech and U. Bergstrom: OPERATING EXPERIENCES: 155 Reactor Shutdown Experience, Compiled by J. W. Cletcher; U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION INFORMATION AND ANALYSES: 158 Operating Experience Feedback Report—Reliability of Safety-Related Steam Turbine-Driven Standby Pumps Used in U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power Plants, J. R. Boardman; 166 Turbine Building Hazards, H. L Ornstein; RECENT DEVELOPMENTS: 169 Reports, Standards, and Safety Guides, D. S. Queener; 175 Proposed Rule Changes as of Dec. 31,1994; ANNOUNCEMENTS: 32 Harvard School of Public Health In-Place Filter Testing Workshop; 134 International Conference on Advances in the Operational Safety of Nuclear Power Plants; 193 30th Tennessee Industries Week; 193 DOE Technical Standards Program 1995 Workshop; 194 Multiphase Flow Experiments and Instrumentation; 180 The Authors; 185 Indexes to Nuclear Safety, Volumes 34 and 35.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Intermodal microwave-to-optical transduction using silicon-on-sapphire optomechanical ring resonator

Optomechanical and electro-optomechanical systems have emerged as one of the most promising approaches for quantum microwave-to-optical transduction to interconnect distributed quantum modalities for scaling the quantum systems. These systems use suspended structures to increase mode overlap and mitigate loss to achieve high efficiency. However, the suspended design’s poor heat dissipation under strong drive limits the ultimate efficiency. Here, we demonstrate an unsuspended optomechanical ring resonator (OMR) based on the silicon-on-sapphire (SOS) platform for microwave-to-optical frequency conversion. The OMR achieves a triply resonant optical-to-optical conversion with an enhanced coupling rateG b = 3.6 gigahertz per square-root milliwatt at a peak conversion efficiency of 1.2% with 3.6-milliwatt microwave drive power and a microwave-to-optical conversion efficiency of 1.5 × 10 −5 at 10-milliwatt optical drive power. Our results show that the unsuspended SOS platform, which mitigates the thermal effect and is compatible with superconducting qubits, is a promising platform for optomechanical circuitry and quantum transduction.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗
DOE OSTI2024

Enhanced Hydrogen Evolution Catalysis of Pentlandite due to the Increases in Coordination Number and Sulfur Vacancy during Cubic‐Hexagonal Phase Transition

Abstract The search for new phases is an important direction in materials science. The phase transition of sulfides results in significant changes in catalytic performance, such as MoS 2 and WS 2 . Cubic pentlandite [cPn, (Fe, Ni) 9 S 8 ] can be a functional material in batteries, solar cells, and catalytic fields. However, no report about the material properties of other phases of pentlandite exists. In this study, the unit‐cell parameters of a new phase of pentlandite, sulfur‐vacancy enriched hexagonal pentlandite (hPn), and the phase boundary between cPn and hPn are determined for the first time. Compared to cPn, the hPn shows a high coordination number, more sulfur vacancies, and high conductivity, which result in significantly higher hydrogen evolution performance of hPn than that of cPn and make the non‐nano rock catalyst hPn superior to other most known nanosulfide catalysts. The increase of sulfur vacancies during phase transition provides a new approach to designing functional materials.

Chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2026

Validating a Dynamic PWR Safety and Security Model?

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) are assessed for safety and security using separate models that cannot capture how an attacker's decisions and a plant's response unfold together in real time, leaving regulators and operators without a complete picture of true plant vulnerability. Traditional probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) methods treat adversarial events as fixed initiators with predetermined outcomes, and are structurally incapable of representing the time-dependent interplay between physical security events, safety system response, and operator mitigative actions. At Idaho National Laboratory (INL), I contributed to the development and validation of Modeling and Analysis for Safety and Security using the Dynamic EMRALD Framework (MASS-DEF). Where static PRA relies on event-tree logic that cannot evolve mid-scenario, MASS-DEF couples a time-dependent dynamic PRA tool EMRALD (Event Modeling Risk Assessment using Linked Diagrams) with attack simulation software, allowing attacker behavior, plant system states, and operator actions to interact across time. My work focused on validating a general Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) model. I traced model logic against PWR plant to identified errors in logic and confirm accuracy. I then built and tested attack scenarios against a general PWR model to verify that the model produced expected outcomes across all logical pathways. I also contributed a section to a related technical paper applying the same EMRALD platform to radiation dose modeling. Results show that MASS-DEF can quantitatively demonstrate that many plants exceed their regulatory security thresholds. This demonstrated margin provides a technically defensible basis for reducing the number of guards without compromising regulatory compliance. Physical security costs represent roughly 10% of annual operating budgets, making such reductions directly meaningful to INL's mission of sustaining existing commercial NPPs. This internship strengthened my understanding of nuclear systems, probabilistic modeling, and technical writing, and has solidified my pursuit of a career at a national laboratory.

98 - NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL↗
DOE OSTI2026

Tokamak Energy’s pre-concept design for a fusion power plant: an overview of ST-E1

Climate change and rapidly rising energy demand, driven in part by artificial intelligence and data-centre growth, create an urgent need for stable, low-carbon, and abundant power. Fusion is a promising long-term solution, yet its commercialisation faces a fundamental paradox in today’s investment environment: pilot plants are essential to de-risk physics, engineering, and operations, but their limited lifetime energy output and high upfront costs make them difficult to finance. This paper presents Tokamak Energy’s response: ST-E1, a pre-concept design for a low-aspect-ratio tokamak power plant engineered specifically to overcome this challenge. ST-E1 is designed from the outset for phased operation—pilot and commercial phases, with an upgrade phase in between—with emphasis on commercial viability, maintainability, nuclear engineering, modularity, and upgradability. A key design principle is the deliberate separation of long-lived assets, such as the magnet cage and vacuum vessel, from replaceable in-vessel systems. This provides an attractive and credible investment approach to generate operational data and de-risk key technologies while preserving most capital-intensive assets for later commercial phases. The architecture supports continuous optimisation toward high net electric power (targeting 800–1000 MW net electric), a normalised capital expenditure of $\$$ 12–14k/kW of net electric power, and high availability (targeting > 80%). A tokamak core with a 5 m major radius, aspect ratio of 2.3, and on-plasma axis toroidal field of 5.25 T was selected to meet these objectives. This paper summarises the ST-E1 design philosophy, principal features, and development methodology. It introduces a Focus Collection of 11 papers detailing the pre-concept design of the entire tokamak and corresponding plant.

ST-E1↗
DOE OSTI2023

Electrolyte-Induced Restructuring of Acid-Stable Oxygen Evolution Catalysts

Crystalline metal oxide catalysts operating under oxygen evolution reaction (OER) conditions invariably restructure, resulting in active sites with hydroxo/oxo species in an amorphous environment. An increase in the population of terminal hydroxo/oxo species (i.e., edge sites) facilitates proton-coupled electron-transfer (PCET) kinetics for oxygen generation and thus improves catalyst competency. While amorphous films benefit from a greater density of active sites, they suffer from diminished charge transport as compared to that of extended crystalline lattices. Managing this amorphous–crystalline dichotomy is essential when designing OER catalysts, which we highlight with the examination of electrodeposited PbO x materials, which historically are very poor OER catalysts. Along these lines, the presence of phosphate during PbO x electrodeposition truncates the growth of an extended lattice owing to its strong bonding to oxide surfaces to afford an amorphous catalyst film (A-PbO x ) with significant charge-transfer resistance (138 ± 42 Ω) and poor OER kinetics (420 ± 105 mV dec –1 Tafel slope). Conversely, electrodeposition of Pb 2+ in the presence of less coordinating electrolytes such as nitrate affords crystalline β-PbO2 with improved charge-transfer resistance (42.6 ± 1.1 Ω), though still poor OER kinetics (134 ± 36 mV dec –1 Tafel slope). By operating amorphous A-PbOx in less coordinating electrolytes, however, a new partially crystalline material can be generated (μc-PbO x ) with further reduced charge-transfer resistance (33.0 ± 1.4 Ω) and improved OER kinetics (70 ± 15 mV dec –1 Tafel slope). The enhanced OER activity of μc-PbO x is the result of coupling the high edge-site population of an amorphous PbOx phase with crystalline-like charge transport properties. Finally, the ability to use an electrolyte to induce OER activity in an inactive amorphous form of PbO x highlights the benefits of optimizing the amorphous–crystalline phase compositions in the design of active OER catalysts.

catalysts↗
NASA NTRS2018

Experimental Effervescence and Freezing Point Depression Measurements of Nitrogen in Liquid Methane-Ethane Mixtures

NASA is designing an unmanned submarine to explore the depths of the hydrocarbon-rich seas on Saturn’s moon Titan. Data from Cassini indicates that the Titan north polar environment sustains stable seas of variable concentrations of ethane, methane, and nitrogen, with a surface temperature near 93 K. The submarine must operate autonomously, study atmosphere/sea exchange, interact with the seabed, hover at the surface or any depth within the sea, and be capable of tolerating variable hydrocarbon compositions. Currently, the main thermal design concern is the effect of effervescence on submarine operation, which affects the ballast system, science instruments, and propellers. Twelve effervescence measurements on various liquid methane-ethane compositions with dissolved gaseous nitrogen are thus presented from 1.5 bar to 4.5 bar at temperatures from 92 K to 96 K to simulate the conditions of the seas. After conducting effervescence measurements, two freezing point depression measurements were conducted. The freezing liquid line was depressed more than 15 K below the triple point temperatures of pure ethane (90.4 K) and pure methane (90.7 K). Experimental effervescence measurements will be used to compare directly with effervescence modeling to determine if changes are required in the design of the thermal management system as well as the propellers.

Freezing Point Depression↗
DOE OSTI2026

Coupled Chemical and Mechanical Control of Phase Stability in Lanthanide-Substituted BiVO 4

Doping is widely used to enhance the photoelectrochemical performance of BiVO 4 , yet solubility limits and polymorphic stability constrain compositional tuning. Here, in this study, the role of trivalent cation substitution (Ln = La, Nd, Dy, Ho, Y) on pressure-induced phase transformations in Bi 1–x Ln x VO 4 (x ≤ 0.5) is described. Powder X-ray and neutron diffraction reveal that increasing Ln content stabilizes the tetragonal zircon-type polymorph under ambient conditions, while applied pressures of up to ∼5 GPa promote conversion to the monoclinic fergusonite-type polymorph. In-situ neutron diffraction on Bi 0.8 La 0.2 VO 4 shows a reversible monoclinic to tetragonal transition near 2–3 GPa with a bulk modulus of 147 GPa. The extent of conversion depends strongly on dopant identity, concentration, and synthetic route, with mixed-phase solid-state samples converting more efficiently than phase-pure coprecipitated materials. These results demonstrate pressure as a viable pathway to access metastable, doped BiVO 4 compositions beyond conventional solubility limits.

Sypkes, Kathryn I. [University of Sydney, NSW (Aus↗
DOE OSTI2025

Utility Experience with Inverter Based Resource Impacts on Transmission Protection

High penetration of inverter-based resources (IBR) can adversely affect the transmission protection schemes in the area. With the proliferation of IBRs, utilities are finding out that conventional protection schemes are not adequately equipped to protect the electric systems because the existing system has been designed based on the fault current response of conventional rotating-machine-based generators. In several cases, the available literature does not provide any clear solution for the issues when the protection scheme does not operate properly near IBRs. This report identifies various protection challenges due to IBRs that industry is facing, from the utility perspective. It includes a broad review of all challenges that system protection has experienced so far with high penetration of IBRs. Key issues have been identified based on a survey of different utility protection engineers. Finally, fault event recordings are shown to demonstrate some actual cases of mis-operations of relays near IBRs.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
NASA NTRS1989

NASA flight cell and battery issues

The author presents the important battery and cell problems, encompassing both test failures and accidents, which were encountered during the past year. Practical issues facing programs, which have to be considered in the development of a battery program strategy, are addressed. The problems of one program, the GRO (Gamma Ray Observatory), during the past year are focused on to illustrate the fundamental types of battery problems that occur. Problems encountered by other programs are briefly mentioned to complete the accounting. Two major categories of issues are defined, namely, whose which are quality and design related, i.e., problems having inherent manufacturing-process-related aspects with an impact on cell reliability, and these which are accident triggered or man induced, i.e., those operational issues having an impact on battery and cell reliability.

Schulze, N. R.↗