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DOE OSTI2024

Evaluating the Impact of Retiring Synchronous Fossil Fuel Generators on Inter-Area Oscillations in the U.S. Western Interconnection

To facilitate the decarbonization of the power grid, fossil-fuel-based synchronous generators are gradually being retired and replaced by inverter-interfaced renewable energy resources. As synchronous machines get displaced, the characteristics of inter-area oscillation modes in electrical interconnections will change. This paper describes a model-based study of the impact of the retirement of synchronous fossil-fuel generators on the oscillatory characteristics of the US Western Interconnection (WI). Results show that if fossil-fuel-based synchronous machines are replaced by grid-forming inverters, then dominant inter-area modes seen in the WI today will change. New inter-area modes may appear due to the electromechanical energy exchange among remaining hydropower generators clustered in geographical proximity in the northwestern part of the WI. This observation indicates that the evolution in modal properties needs to be closely tracked as the resource mix in electrical interconnections changes.

grid forming inverter, wide area oscillation, Inte↗

DOE OSTI2022

Self-Sensing, Stretchable, Active Circuit Arrays: Liquid Metal Paste as a Combination Interconnect and Strain Sensor

Stretchable electrical interconnects and substrate materials are increasingly used to create flexible and con-formable electronic systems for soft robotics, smart textiles, and wearable devices. Wires fabricated using composite or liquid conductive inks encapsulated in silicone enable high strain and are mechanically robust. The resistance of these inter-connects increases with strain, which can present challenges for power delivery and signaling among electronic components. However, this effect can be used directly to estimate strain within a stretchable circuit without the need for additional sensor components. In this work, we present an approach for fabricating fully-stretchable, multi-layer active circuit arrays in silicone using liquid metal paste interconnects, in which power and data wires are re-purposed as strain sensors to estimate substrate deformation. As a proof-of-principle, we demonstrate a 3×3 active circuit array that self-senses relative voltage supply at each node to estimate deformation and consumes less than 10 mA per node. Each node is digitally addressable and performs both analog measurement and digital conversion. All interconnects are fabricated using liquid metal paste, and power, data, and sensing are performed over a shared, four-wire interface in this multi-layer stretchable printed circuit board.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗

DOE OSTI2020

Climate-Water Impacts on Interconnection-Scale Electricity System Planning

A growing literature emphasizes the importance of integrating climate change impacts into electricity system planning. Rising average temperatures can increase and shift electricity demand while reducing generator and transmission efficiency. Changes to water availability and quality can reduce the output of thermally cooled generators and hydropower. Electric power grids across the US and globally are undergoing transformational changes that present new opportunities and challenges to reliability assurance. However, electric utilities and system operators have limited internal capabilities to incorporate these effects into planning practices. This work addresses gaps in utility and system planner practices by integrating climate-water-electricity expertise from universities and U.S. Department of Energy National Laboratories with electricity system planners and stakeholders in the Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC). Using a highly collaborative approach, global climate model data, high-resolution hydrology models, and long-term electric sector capacity expansion tools are employed to analyze a range of climate outcomes for future electricity scenarios aligned with recent WECC planning studies. Doing so allows WECC to expand its climate-agnostic planning assessments to consider how future temperature and precipitation patterns could influence generation and transmission planning. We explore how changes to climate-water conditions can affect power plant investment and operation, system economics, and environmental impacts, providing an expanded perspective on interconnection-wide decision making under climate uncertainty.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

NASA NTRS2010

Advanced Flip Chips in Extreme Temperature Environments

The use of underfill materials is necessary with flip-chip interconnect technology to redistribute stresses due to mismatching coefficients of thermal expansion (CTEs) between dissimilar materials in the overall assembly. Underfills are formulated using organic polymers and possibly inorganic filler materials. There are a few ways to apply the underfills with flip-chip technology. Traditional capillary-flow underfill materials now possess high flow speed and reduced time to cure, but they still require additional processing steps beyond the typical surface-mount technology (SMT) assembly process. Studies were conducted using underfills in a temperature range of -190 to 85 C, which resulted in an increase of reliability by one to two orders of magnitude. Thermal shock of the flip-chip test articles was designed to induce failures at the interconnect sites (-40 to 100 C). The study on the reliability of flip chips using underfills in the extreme temperature region is of significant value for space applications. This technology is considered as an enabling technology for future space missions. Flip-chip interconnect technology is an advanced electrical interconnection approach where the silicon die or chip is electrically connected, face down, to the substrate by reflowing solder bumps on area-array metallized terminals on the die to matching footprints of solder-wettable pads on the chosen substrate. This advanced flip-chip interconnect technology will significantly improve the performance of high-speed systems, productivity enhancement over manual wire bonding, self-alignment during die joining, low lead inductances, and reduced need for attachment of precious metals. The use of commercially developed no-flow fluxing underfills provides a means of reducing the processing steps employed in the traditional capillary flow methods to enhance SMT compatibility. Reliability of flip chips may be significantly increased by matching/tailoring the CTEs of the substrate material and the silicon die or chip, and also the underfill materials. Advanced packaging interconnects technology such as flip-chip interconnect test boards have been subjected to various extreme temperature ranges that cover military specifications and extreme Mars and asteroid environments. The eventual goal of each process step and the entire process is to produce components with 100 percent interconnect and satisfy the reliability requirements. Underfill materials, in general, may possibly meet demanding end use requirements such as low warpage, low stress, fine pitch, high reliability, and high adhesion.

Ramesham, Rajeshuni↗

NASA NTRS2006

Carbon Nanotube Interconnect

Method and system for fabricating an electrical interconnect capable of supporting very high current densities ( 10(exp 6)-10(exp 10) Amps/sq cm), using an array of one or more carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The CNT array is grown in a selected spaced apart pattern, preferably with multi-wall CNTs, and a selected insulating material, such as SiOw, or SiuNv is deposited using CVD to encapsulate each CNT in the array. An exposed surface of the insulating material is planarized to provide one or more exposed electrical contacts for one or more CNTs.

Li, Jun↗

NASA NTRS2007

Metallic Nanowire Interconnections for Integrated Circuit Fabrication

A method for fabricating an electrical interconnect between two or more electrical components. A conductive layer is provided on a substarte and a thin, patterned catalyst array is deposited on an exposed surface of the conductive layer. A gas or vapor of a metallic precursor of a metal nanowire (MeNW) is provided around the catalyst array, and MeNWs grow between the conductive layer and the catalyst array. The catalyst array and a portion of each of the MeNWs are removed to provide exposed ends of the MeNWs.

Ng, Hou Tee↗

NASA NTRS2017

Thermal cycling testing to failure of a ceramic column grid array package for space applications

Ceramic column grid array (CCGA) packages have been used increasingly in logic and microprocessor functions, telecommunications, flight avionics boards, payload electronics boards, engineering navigational and science cameras, electronic assemblies, and other applications, because of their inherent advantages such as high electrical interconnect density, very good thermal and electrical performance, and compatibility with standard surface-mount technology (SMT) packaging assembly processes. Because these advanced electronic packages tend to have less solder-joint strain-relief than do leaded flat-pack electronic packages, the reliability of CCGA packages in challenging thermal environments is a very important consideration for their short- and long-term use in JPL-NASA space missions. In this study, we assembled daisy chains of polyimide printed wiring boards from CCGA-interconnect packages, inspected the boards nondestructively, and then subjected them to thermal cycling to assess their reliability in thermal environments from +125°C to -40°C±25°C. The test hardware consists of a CCGA 1752 package (CN version). The package was divided into four daisy-chained sections that were electrically monitored for their continuity during thermal cycling. The CCGA 1752 package is roughly 45 mm × 45 mm with a 42-mm × 42-mm array of 80%/20% Pb/Sn columns on a 1.00-mm pitch. The resistance of the daisy-chained CCGA interconnects was continuously monitored during thermal cycling in a gaseous nitrogen environment. Electrical continuity resistance measurements as a function of thermal cycling are reported here; tests to date have shown significant change to an open circuit in daisy-chain resistance as a function of thermal cycling. The change in interconnect resistance becomes increasingly noticeable with increasing number of thermal cycles. This paper describes the experimental thermal-cycling test results of CCGA 1752 package reliability testing under an extremely wide temperature range. The first failure was observed at 1479th thermal cycle. We report the thermal-cycle reliability test data for ~2500 thermal cycles.

Ramesham, Rajeshuni↗

NASA NTRS1976

Flexible, FEP-Teflon covered solar cell module development

Techniques and equipment were developed for the large scale, low-cost fabrication of lightweight, roll-up and fold-up, FEP-Teflon encapsulated solar cell modules. Modules were fabricated by interconnecting solderless single-crystal silicon solar cells and heat laminating them at approximately 300 C between layers of optically clear FEP and to a loadbearing Kapton substrate sheet. Modules were fabricated from both conventional and wraparound contact solar cells. A heat seal technique was developed for mechanically interconnecting modules into an array. The electrical interconnections for both roll-up and fold-up arrays were also developed. The use of parallel-gap resistance welding, ultrasonic bonding, and thermocompression bonding processes for attaching interconnects to solar cells were investigated. Parallel-gap welding was found to be best suited for interconnecting the solderless solar cells into modules. Details of the fabrication equipment, fabrication processes, module and interconnect designs, environmental test equipment, and test results are presented.

Rauschenbach, H. S.↗

NASA NTRS1994

Module comprising IC memory stack dedicated to and structurally combined with an IC microprocessor chip

A computer module is disclosed in which a stack of glued together IC memory chips is structurally integrated with a microprocessor chip. The memory provided by the stack is dedicated to the microprocessor chip. The microprocessor and its memory stack may be connected either by glue and/or by solder bumps. The solder bumps can perform three functions--electrical interconnection, mechanical connection, and heat transfer. The electrical connections in some versions are provided by wire bonding.

Carson, John C.↗

DOE OSTI2016

Printed biofuel cells

Methods, systems, and devices are disclosed for implementing a biofuel cell device for extracting energy from a biofuel. In one aspect, a biofuel cell device includes a substrate, an anode including a catalyst to facilitate the conversion of a fuel in a biological fluid in an oxidative process that releases electrons captured at the anode, thereby extracting energy from the fuel substance, a cathode configured on the substrate adjacent to the anode and separated from the anode by a spacing region, and a load electrically coupled to the anode and cathode via electrical interconnects to obtain the extracted energy as electrical energy.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Apparatus and method for high density detachable electrical interface

The present disclosure relates to a high density electrical interconnect apparatus for interfacing with remotely located electrical components. The apparatus may have a housing, a substrate element supported within the housing, and a plurality of independent substrate interface connect subsystems arranged in a planar grid on the substrate element. The apparatus further has a plurality of independent electrical interface connector subassemblies, each configured to be coupled to an associated subplurality of the substrate interface connect subsystems, to form a plurality of electrical communication channels with the remotely located electrical components.

Patra, Susant↗

DOE OSTI2019

Advanced Power Electronics Designs - Reliability and Prognostics

The electrical interconnection and isolation design aspects within an inverter must also provide high thermal performance and thermomechanical reliability. In collaboration with ORNL, DuPont, and Indiana Integrated Circuits (IIC), NREL is evaluating new packaging materials and manufacturing techniques for wide-bandgap-based traction inverters. Thermal modeling and experimental evaluation revealed that an organic direct-bond-copper (ODBC) substrate has similar thermal resistance to traditional ceramic substrates. High-temperature thermal cycling has shown the ODBC substrates to have greater reliability than ceramic substrates which is a significant finding in the quest for low-cost, power-dense, high-temperature power electronics. IIC's direct chip-to-chip topside electrical connection will be attached to ODBC substrates and reliability evaluation for both technologies will be performed at NREL in Q4.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗

NASA NTRS1992

Comparative evaluation of optical waveguides as alternative interconnections for high performance packaging

A detailed comparison between optical and electrical interconnections is presented, with emphasis on advantages and drawbacks of optical link utilization. The impact of attenuation, dispersive degradation, and fan out on signal integrity is discussed. Reflections from discontinuities are taken into account in the section on fan out. According to our results, there is no obvious advantage of using optical interconnections for the distribution of digital signals containing significant frequency components in excess of 10 GHz, unless substantial distances are involved, for which low dispersion optical waveguides could provide a solution. The implementation of a polyimide optical waveguide in the MCNC package is discussed.

Schacham, S. E.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Exploring sustainable electricity system development pathways in South America’s MERCOSUR sub-region

South America has abundant natural water and energy resources, and exploiting these resources to achieve a clean energy future is central to the continent’s economic and sustainable development objectives for the next several decades. Designing pathways to achieving this clean energy future requires better understanding the structural, techno-economic, and policy forces that may influence the future development of the electricity sector in the region. Here, we focus on an interconnected electricity system of five South American countries – Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay – which represent major electricity generation, consumption, and trade dynamics in the region. We explore the implications of various forces that could shape the future composition of the power sector in the sub-region, including: evolving renewable energy cost and performance, natural gas prices, cross-border interconnection facilities, early retirement of installed hydropower, and different decarbonization goals. We use a model framework based on a power system planning platform (GridPath) to co-optimize investment and operations of generation, storage, and transmission facilities out to 2050. Our results in a Reference scenario indicate that the electricity system can maintain a relatively clean energy portfolio by leveraging existing hydropower capacity and integrating increasingly cost-competitive wind and solar power. However, dependence on natural gas in the region is likely to remain high. A low-carbon electricity system can cost-effectively be achieved through policy interventions (e.g., renewable portfolio standards) and by diversifying investments in wind, solar, battery storage, and some new hydropower capacity. We also find that existing hydropower is critical for maintaining reliable future grid operations. Enhanced regional electricity trade, mostly based on existing interconnection capacities with nominal investment in new transmission, can significantly benefit the clean energy transition in the region.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

NASA NTRS2001

Microfabricated structures with electrical isolation and interconnections

The invention is directed to a microfabricated device. The device includes a substrate that is etched to define mechanical structures at least some of which are anchored laterally to the remainder of the substrate. Electrical isolation at points where mechanical structures are attached to the substrate is provided by filled isolation trenches. Filled trenches may also be used to electrically isolate structure elements from each other at points where mechanical attachment of structure elements is desired. The performance of microelectromechanical devices is improved by 1) having a high-aspect-ratio between vertical and lateral dimensions of the mechanical elements, 2) integrating electronics on the same substrate as the mechanical elements, 3) good electrical isolation among mechanical elements and circuits except where electrical interconnection is desired.

Clark, William A.↗

NASA NTRS1974

Design guidelines for advanced LSI microcircuit packaging using thick film multilayer technology

Ceramic multilayer circuitry results from the sequential build-up of two or more layers of pre-determined conductive interconnections separated by dielectric layers and fired at an elevated temperature to form a solidly fused structure. The resultant ceramic interconnect matrix is used as a base to mount active and passive devices and provide the necessary electrical interconnection to accomplish the desired electrical circuit. Many methods are known for developing multilevel conductor mechanisms such as multilayer printed circuits, welded wire matrices, flexible copper tape conductors, and thin and thick-film ceramic multilayers. Each method can be considered as a specialized field with each possessing its own particular set of benefits and problems. This design guide restricts itself to the art of design, fabrication and assembly of ceramic multilayer circuitry and the reliability of the end product.

Peckinpaugh, C. J.↗

NASA NTRS1984

Investigation of test methods, material properties, and processes for solar cell encapsulants

Photovoltaic (PV) modules consist of a string of electrically interconnected silicon solar cells capable of producing practical quantities of electrical power when exposed to sunlight. To insure high reliability and long term performance, the functional components of the solar cell module must be adequately protected from the environment by some encapsulation technique. The encapsulation system must provide mechanical support for the cells and corrosion protection for the electrical components. The goal of the program is to identify and develop encapsulation systems consistent with the PV module operating requirements of 30 year life and a target cost of $0.70 per peak watt ($70 per square meter) (1980 dollars). Assuming a module efficiency of ten percent, which is equivalent to a power output of 100 watts per square meter in midday sunlight, the capital cost of the modules may be calculated to be $70.00 per square meter. Out of this cost goal, only 20 percent is available for encapsulation due to the high cost of the cells, interconnects, and other related components. The encapsulation cost allocation may then be stated as $14.00 per square meter, included all coatings, pottant and mechanical supports for the cells.

Source record↗

DOE OSTI2016

Transmission Reinforcements in the Central American Regional Power System

The Central American regional interconnected power system (SER) connects the countries members of the Central American regional electricity market (MER): Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The SER was a result of a long term regional effort, and was initially conceived to transfer 300 MW between countries. However, the current transfer limits between countries range from 70 MW to 300 MW. Regional entities, like CRIE (Regional Commission of Electrical Interconnection), EOR (Central American Regional System Operator), and CDMER (Board of Directors of the Central American Market) are working on coordinating the national transmission expansion plans with regional transmission planning efforts. This paper presents experience in Central America region to recommend transmission reinforcements to achieve 300 MW transfer capacity between any pair of member countries of the Central American regional electricity market (MER). This paper also provides a methodology for technical analysis and for coordination among the regional and national entities. This methodology is unique for transmission systems of these characteristics.

power system interconnection↗